Contents

1. Science, scientific method and critique
2. Major theoretical strands of research methodology
3. Positivism and its critique
4. Fact, value and objectivity

Science, scientific method and critique

Science is nothing but method of approach or mode of analysis.

Science and scientific method are one and the same in the ultimate analysis.

Mode of analysis includes three important stages; observation, experimentation and verification.

Scientific method seeks to explain the events of nature in a reproducible manner.

Characteristic of scientific research by Horton and Hunt

Major steps in scientific research by Horton and Hunt

Critique of science and scientific method

1. Science and scientific method have been criticized for its claim to be an objective method.

2. Karl Popper denied the very existence of evidence and scientific method

3. Science and technology is criticized for promoting consumerism and creating new problems for human being. It has threatened the very existence of humanity

4. Science has been criticized for manipulating nature as well as individual

5. Science and scientific method is a process of rationalization and according to Weber, process of rationalization itself is irrational.

Major theoretical strands of research methodology

Functionalism

Functionalism views society as a system; i.e. as a set of interconnected parts which together form a whole. The basic unit of analysis is society and its various parts are understood primarily in terms of their relationship to the whole.

Functionalists draw analogy between the society and the human body. Just as an organism has certain basic needs that must be satisfied if it is to survive, so society has basic needs that must be met if it is to continue to exist. These basic needs are known as functional pre-requisites.

Marxism

Conflict theories differ from functionalism in that they hold that there fundamental differences of interest between social groups. These differences result in conflict being a common and persistent feature of society and not a temporary aberration. All societies (except for prehistoric society) contain basic contradictions. Exploitation of one social group by another. This creates a fundamental conflict of interest between social groups since one gain at the expense of another. The major contradiction occurs between the forces of production and relation of production.

Symbolic interactionism: (Non-positivist method)

Takes a small scale view of society. Focuses on small scale perspective of the interactions between individuals.

Explains the individuals in a society and their interactions with others and through this it explains social order and change.

Theory was compiled from the teachings of G. H. Mead.

Development of individual is a social process as were the meanings individual assign to things.

People change based on their interaction with objects, event, ideas and other people and they assign meanings to things in order to decide how to act.

Herbert Blumer coined the term symbolic Interactionism and proposed 3 tenants;

1. We act based on the meaning we assign to things

2. We give meanings to things based on social interactions

3. The meaning we give to something is not permanent; it can change due to everyday life.

Phenomenology: (Non-positivist method)

There is a fundamental difference between the subject matter of natural science and social science.

Methods and assumptions of the natural science are inappropriate to the study of men.

Natural science deals with matter. Matter simply reacts unconsciously to external stimuli and simply behaves. Social science deals with men who possesses consciousness, thoughts, feelings, meanings and intentions because of which his actions are meaningful. Man does not merely react to external stimuli, he does not simply behave; he acts.

Ethnomethodology: (Non-positivist method)

Ethnomethodology means the study of the methods used by people.

It is concerned with examining the methods and procedures employed by the members of society to construct, account for and give meaning to their social world.

Assumption – society exists only in so far as members perceive its existence

Suspend or abandon the belief that actual objective social order exists. Instead they proceed from the assumption that social life appears orderly to members of society.

Methods employed by sociologists in their research are basically similar to those used by members of society in their everyday lives.

Positivism and its critique

Positivism

Positivism can be defined as a set of ideas which speaks that the behaviour of man can be studied in the same way as the behaviour of matters in natural sciences. Emphasis on behaviour that can be directly observed. Human behaviour can be quantified and measured.

Measurement scale to measure human behaviour can be devised – Guttmann scale, likert scale.

Principles

1. Objectivism – adheres to the notion of objective reality and absolute truths

2. Empiricism – claims that knowledge comes through sensory experience

3. Quantitativism – stresses the value of accuracy, precession and measurement

4. Objectivity – discourages subjectivity in the process of social research

5. Value neutrality – maintains that facts should be kept apart from values

6. Anti rationalism – rejects the notion that knowledge comes from reason

7. Universality of science – asserts that the methods of physical science are applicable to social sciences

8. Deduction / induction – employs a design based on deduction and produces inductive generalization

9. Determinism – the world is deterministic

10. Design – employs a strict and planned design

Critique of positivism

Philosophy of science

Karl Popper: Positivism kills the spirit of science. Scientists should try to falsify theories and suggests hypothetico deductivism.

Thomas S. Kuhn: Progress of science is not characterized by cumulative growth of theories.

Both verification (inductivism) and falsification (hypothetico deductivism) talk about linear progress of science which cannot be taken for granted. Every scientific discipline passes through pre-paradigmatic and paradigmatic stage.

Epistemological pluralism of Paul Feyerabend: World is largely unknown hence we must not limit ourselves to any one method. All methodologies have their own limitations and the only rule applies is anything goes.

Phenomenology: (Covered above)

Frankfurt school

Positivism is status quoist. Positivists (Emile Durkheim) emphasize on observation from outside which makes the observation superficial. Positivism is unable to be critical of society.

Feminist school

Positivism is andocentric or male centric. Uses power differential between men and women to explain sexual division of labour. Description of women is a construction of patriarchy.

Fact, value and objectivity

Facts: Fact is defined as empirically verifiable observations. Sensorily verifiable. Objective.

Value: Value is defined as moral judgments which speaks of what ought to be. Desirable. Perception of right or wrong. Subjective.

Objectivity: Objectivity means the ability to see the facts as they are and not as one might wish them to be.

Fact, value and objectivity: 4 views of relationship:

1. Fact value dichotomy – fact and value are two distinct entity and separable. Positivists believe in fact value dichotomy.

2. Fact value are distinct but cannot be separated – value play important role. Without value sociological inquiry is not possible.

3. Though values intrude in research and analysis, one should try to be value neutral.

4. Complete objectivity is neither possible nor required.

Non-positivist methodologies: (Covered above)