Sociological theories of power

Power – a functionalist perspective

Max Weber

Weber’s definition of power implies that those who hold power do so at the expense of others. It suggests that there is a fixed amount of power and therefore if some hold power, others do not.

Constant sum concept of power.

Power holders will tend to use power to further their own interests.

Talcott Parsons

Rejects constant sum concept of power.

Parsons regards power as something possessed by the society as a whole.

Power is a generalized facility or resource in the society in particular it is the capacity to mobilize resources of the society for the attainment of goals.

Amount of power in the society is measured by the degree to which collective goals are realized.

Variable sum concept of power.

Power – a Marxian perspective

Radical alternative to Parson’s functional approach.

Power is seen to be held by a particular group in society at the expense of the rest of the society.

Constant sum concept of power.

Source of power is economic infrastructure.

Elite theory of power

Classical elite theory – Vilfredo Pareto and Gaetano Mosca

Vilfredo Pareto

2 main types of governing elite;

1. Lions – achieve power because of their ability to take direct and decisive decision and rule by force.

2. Foxes – rule by cunning and guide by deployment, manipulation, wheeling and dealing.

Major changes occur when one elite replaces another which is called circulation of elite.

History to Marx ultimately leads to and ends with communist utopia, history to Pareto is a never ending circulation of elite. Nothing ever really changes and history is and always will be a graveyard of aristocracy.

Gaetano Mosca

Like Pareto believed that rule by a minority was an inevitable feature of social life.

Unlike Pareto who believed that the quality required for elite rule were the same for all time, Mosca argued that they varied from society to society

Differences in democracy and other forms of elite rule.

Ruling elite in democracy is open. Greater possibility of elite drawn from a wider range of social backgrounds.

Elite theory and USA – C. W. Mills and Hunter

Elite rule not inevitable.

Elite rule is a recent development.

Mills explains elite rule in institutional rather than psychological terms.

Rejects that elites have superior psychological characteristics.

Structure of institution is such that those at the top of hierarchy monopolize power.

Mills identified 3 key institutions;

1. The major corporations

2. The military

3. The federal government

Elite have same social background. Largely from upper strata of the society. Mainly protestant, native and from urban areas of east USA. Similar education background. Hence share similar values and sympathies.

Interchange of personnel between the 3 elites.

Elite theory and communist societies

T. B. Bottomore – political system in communist countries approaches pure type of power elite.

Raymond Aron – power in communist societies can be best described by elite model. In USSR political, economic and military power are concentrated in the hands of a unified elite having absolute and unbound power. Politicians, trade unions, public officials, generals, managers all belong to one party.

Pluralism – power and politics in western democracies

Pluralist perspective maintains that power is dispersed among a variety of groups in society.

Industrial society is increasingly differentiated into a variety of social groups and sectional interests. This results in formation of organizations to represent and articulate these interests.

Democracy is seen as representative government.

Power elite, bureaucracy, pressure groups and political parties

Power elite: (covered in the section above)

Bureaucracy: (Covered in Thinkers – Max Weber)

Pressure groups

Any association, organization or a group which seeks through a variety of methods to influence public policy and decisions at local, national or international levels usually within a particular quite limited sphere.

It attempts to influence legislative or governing institutions on behalf of its own special interests or interests of larger public that it represents.

Classification of types of pressure groups

1. Primary pressure groups – involve in political activities

2. Sectional / interest / protective pressure groups – aims to protect the interest of their members

3. Cause or promotional pressure groups – do not aims to protect the interest of their members advance the causes that their members consider important

4. Insider pressure groups – most likely to be consulted regularly by the government

5. Local, national and international pressure groups – Pressure groups may concern themselves primarily with local, national international issues or with a combination of all three types of activity.

6. Permanent pressure groups – formed to address issues which are seen as likely to dominate the political agenda for the foreseeable future.

7. Anomic pressure groups – emerged using illegal methods.

Functions of pressure groups

1. Representation

2. Political participation

3. Education

4. Policy formulation

5. Policy implementation

How pressure groups exert influence

1. Ministers and civil servants

2. Parliament

3. Political parties

4. Public opinion

5. Direct action

Are pressure groups becoming more powerful

The rise of pressure group power

1. The growth of cause groups

2. Increased leisure time

3. Higher educational standards

4. Changes in gender roles

5. Membership of political parties have declined

6. The widening of access point through devolution

7. Globalization

The decline of pressure groups

1. The end of corporatism

2. Decline in meaningful and active participation

How do pressure groups promote democracy

1. Supplement electoral democracy

1. Keep government in touch with public opinion between elections

2. Give a political voice to the public

2. Widen political participation

3. Promote education

4. Ensure competition and debate

How do pressure groups threaten democracy

1. Increase political inequality

2. Exercise non-legitimate power

3. Exert behind the scene influence

4. Lead to the tyranny of the minority

Political parties

Political party is a group of people who come together to contest election and hold power in the government.

As per Antony Downs, a political party is a team of men seeking to control the governing apparatus by gaining office in a duly constituted election.

A political party has 3 mains components;

1. The leaders

2. The active members

3. The followers

Functions of political parties

1. They articulate and aggregate social interests

2. They recruit political personnel and nurture future generations of leaders

3. They develop political programs

4. They promote the political socialization and participation of citizens

5. They organize the government

6. They contribute to the legitimacy of the political system

7. They contest elections

8. They put forwards policies and programs for the voters to choose from them

9. They play a decisive role in making laws for a country

10. They form and run government

11. They play the role of opposition to the government

12. They provide people with access to the government machinery and the welfare schemes implemented by the government

Types of parties.

1. Based on degree of organization:

1. Electorate parties

2. Membership parties

2. Based on socio-political objectives:

1. Conservative parties

2. Liberal parties

3. Social democratic parties

4. Socialist parties

3. Religion based parties

4. Extreme right wing parties

5. Communist parties

6. Based on social classes:

1. Popular parties

2. Special interest parties

7. Based on positioning towards the political system:

1. Parties conforming to the political system

2. Parties opposed to the political system

Challenges before political parties

1. Lack of internal democracy

2. Dynastic succession

3. Growing role of money and muscle power

4. Unable to offer a meaningful choice to the voters

5. The iron law of oligarchy

Nation, state, citizenship, democracy, civil society, ideology

Nation

Concept of nation

Nation is defined as a group of people cohesively attached with each other by the fact of belonging to one race, language, religion, culture, geographical location etc. and have similar political ambitions and uniform historical development. The feeling attached with it is called nationality.

Factors responsible for emergence of nation

1. Race and kinship

2. Community of religion

3. Common history or traditions

4. Community of economic ties

State

According to MacIver the state is as association which acting through law as promulgated by government endowed to this end with coercive power maintains within a community territorially demarcated universal external conditions of social order.

It can be said that when a group of people are permanently settled on a definite territory and have government of their own, free from any kind of external control, they constitute a state and it has sovereign power upon its people.

Elements important for state as per MacIver

1. Specific region and its inhabitants

2. Region free from outer control

3. Requirement of a sovereign government’

4. State applies power to control and unify the people through legislature, judiciary, executive and armed forces.

Karl Marx on state

For Marx, state is force and state exercises power and authority for promoting the interest of the dominant class and suppressing and exploiting the weaker class.

State is a product of class struggle, an instrument of class rule. Thus state essentially a class structure.

State is a non-economic institution and hence a part of the super structure.

Max Weber on state

In politics as a vocation Weber suggests that state is a special kind of institution that claims the monopoly of legitimate use of physical force within a given territory.

4 defining characteristics of modern state;

1. Legal and administrative order subject to change by legislation only

2. Binding authority on all its members and over the act carried out in its territory

3. Membership usually by birth

4. Use of force if that is legally prescribed and permitted

Emile Durkheim on state

Durkheim traced the development of the state to the division of labour in the society, as societies became more and more complex there occurred a distinction between the governing and the governed, which in turn results in the formation of state.

Citizenship

Citizenship has been defined as the legal status of membership of a state.

A citizen is a person who enjoys rights and performs his duties in a state.

Types of citizenship

Global citizenship

Global citizenship are the rights, responsibilities and duties that come with being a member of the global entity as a citizen of a particular nation or place.

Dual citizenship

A person’s citizenship status in which a person is concurrently regarded as a citizen of more than one state under laws of those states.

Green citizenship

It has come to be realized that natural resources are limited & many of them are non-renewable. These resources are not only for those citizens who are alive, but they also belong equally to our future generations for whom these resources should be protected.

Democracy

Democracy is the government of the people, by the people and for the people.

It is a political system in which people and not monarch or aristocrats rule.

Types of democracy

Participatory democracy or direct democracy

Decisions are made communally by those affected by them

Representative democracy

Decisions affecting the community are taken not by its members as a whole but by the people they have elected for this purpose.

Classical notion of democracy

Salient features of democracy as per Plato and Aristotle

1. Equal participation by all freemen

2. Arriving at public decisions in an atmosphere of free discussion

3. General respect for law and for the established procedures of the community

Concept of liberal democracy

1. Government by consent

2. Public accountability

3. Majority rule

4. Recognition of minority rights

5. Constitutional government

Characteristics of liberal democracy

1. More than one political party freely competing for political power

2. Political offices not confined to any class

3. Periodic election based on universal adult franchise

4. Protection of civil liberties

5. Independence of judiciary

Conditions for successful working of democracy

1. National sentiment

2. Spirit of toleration

3. High moral character

4. Widespread education

5. Economic security and equality

Civil society

A civil society is comprised of groups or organization working in the interest of the citizens but operating outside the governmental and for-profit sectors.

Functions of civil society in a democratic order

By Larry Diamond in his article Rethinking civil society;

1. To limit state power

2. To empower citizens

3. To inculcate and promote an arena for the development of democratic attributes

4. To provide avenues for political parties and other organizations

5. To function as a recruiting, informational and leadership generating agency

6. To act as a shock absorbing institution

7. To generate public and political support for successful economic and political reforms

8. To help in identifying and train new political leaders

9. To monitor elections

10. To strengthen citizen’s attitude towards the state

Democratic advantages of civil society

By Dr. Jan Aart Scholte in her article Civil society and democracy in global governance

1. Public education

2. Voice to stake holders

3. Policy inputs

4. Transparency of governance

5. Public accountability

6. Legitimacy

Democratic disadvantages / dangers of civil society

1. Civil society activities may not necessarily pursue democratic purpose

2. Civil society might draw away from democracy if its efforts are poorly planned and designed or executed

3. Ill-equipped government agencies cannot handle civil society inputs

4. State funding and benefits could corrupt the volunteers of civil society organizations

5. Civil society concern for global democracy could be insensitive towards the local cultural practice

6. Civil society may lack internal democracy

Ideology

Ideology means a set of ideas which are accepted to be true by a particular group, party or nation without further examination.

Ideology is a matter of faith. It has no scientific basis. Adherents of an ideology think that its validity need not be subjected to verification.

When an ideology is used to defend an existing system or to advocate a limited or a radical change in that system, it becomes part of politics.

A political ideology may lend legitimacy to the ruling class or it may involve an urge for revolution. It therefore signifies the manipulative power of a dominant class or of a social movement.

An ideology is action oriented.

Presents a cause before its adherents and induces them to fight for that cause and make sacrifices for its realization

Protest, agitation, social movements, collective action, revolution

Protest

In simple words, protest is a form of political expression that seeks to bring about social or political change by influencing the knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors of the public or the policies of an organization or institution.

Unaddressed protests may grow and widen into agitation, social movement, collective action and political and/or social revolution.

Perspectives on the Sources of Protest

1. Grievances/Resources theory:

2. Political Opportunity Structures:

1. Closed systems are more likely to push actors outside conventional channels and onto the streets, increasing levels and degrees of unconventional political action. Protest is more likely when groups lack access to institutionalized channels of political influence.

2. In contrast, Open political systems encourage higher rates of protest, albeit in less contentious forms.

3. Other studies maintain that political systems with a mixture of open and closed characteristics are most conducive to protest.

3. Cultural Explanations.

Agitation

Bowers and Ochs define agitation as following - “Agitation occurs when people outside the normal decision-making establishment advocate significant social change and encounter a degree of resistance within the establishment such as to require more than the normal discursive means of persuasion.

Agitation strategies / stages

1. Petition

2. Promulgation

3. Solidification

4. Non-violent resistance

5. Escalation / confrontation

Control strategies

1. Avoidance

2. Suppression

3. Adjustment

4. Capitulation

Social movements

When a group of individuals tries to bring or resists Social Change fully or partially on the basis of ideology it is known as movement. When these changes or resistance are desired in social sphere of life it is known as social movement

Types of social movements

1. Alternative social movement

2. Redemptive social movements

3. Reformist social movements

4. Revolutionary social movements

5. Transformative movement

6. Migratory movement

7. Resistance or reactionary movement

8. Expressive movement

9. Utopian movement

Life cycle of a social movement

1. The unrest stage

2. The excitement stage

3. The formalization stage

4. The institutionalization stage

5. The dissolution stage

Functions of social movement

1. Mediation

2. Pressure

3. Clarification of collective consciousness

Social movement theories

Collective behaviour theory

Crowds posses a collective mind that enable participants to carry out collective actions they would never do as individuals. Actions of crowd perceived to be irrational, spontaneous and often destructive.

Relative deprivation theory

Social movements have their foundation among people who feel deprived of some goods or resources.

Structural strain / social strain / value added theory

Assumes that certain conditions are needed for the development of a social movement

Side effect of rapid social change.

Structural strain present in the society is responsible for collective behaviour.

6 things necessary and sufficient;

1. Structural conduciveness

2. Structural strain

3. Spread of generalized belief

4. Participating factors

5. Mobilization of action

6. Failure of social control

Revitalization theory

Social movements develop out of deliberate, organized and conscious efforts on the part of the members of the society to construct a more satisfying culture for themselves.

Marxist theory

Class differences

Resource mobilization theory

Focuses on the ability of members of a social movement to acquire resources and mobilize people in order to advance their cause.

5 types of resources;

1. Material – money and physical capital

2. Moral – solidarity and support for the movement’s goal

3. Social-organizational – organizational strategies, social networks, bloc recruitment

4. Human – volunteers, staff, leaders

5. Cultural – prior activist experience, understanding of the issues, collective action know-how

Political process / political opportunity theory

Defined social movements as part of political process, but a part that operates at least partially outside political frameworks and institutions as commonly understood.

Frame analysis theory

Movement’s success is in framing the issues in appealing ways played a major role in its potential for conducting successful action and winning over the public.

New social movement theory

New conditions of post-industrial society have undermined the old social movements, especially the labour movement which followed Marxist paradigm, and simulated new struggle (new social movements) which is more interesting to the middle class.

Example: feminist movement, pro-choice movement, civil rights movement, environmental movement, free software movement, gay rights movement, peace movement, anti-nuclear movement, alter-globalization movement.

The mass society theory

Kornhauser is of the view that due to the lack of intermediate structure, people in the mass society are not integrated in the society. This leads to alienation, tension and ultimately social protest.

Status inconsistency theory

Broom and Lenski are of the view that objective discrepancy between persons ranking and status generate subjective tensions in the society leading to cognitive dissonance, discontent and protest.

Collective action

Collective action can simply be defined as people acting together in pursuit of interests they share

For sociological purposes, collective action refers to emergent and at least minimally coordinated action by two or more people that is motivated by a desire to change some aspect of social life or to resist changes proposed by others.

Revolution

When unorganized masses spontaneously bring structural changes in the society through violent means (usually) is known as revolution.

There are following characteristics of revolution

1. Structural change in society

2. Through violent means generally

3. With effort of unorganized masses

4. Spontaneous or sporadic

Theories of revolution

Karl Marx’s theory

The development of societies is marked by periodic class conflicts that, when they become acute, tend to end in a process of revolutionary change.

James Davis’ theory

Criticizing Marx, James Davis points out that there are many periods of history when people have lived in dire poverty but have not risen up in protest.

According to Davis, social protest and ultimately revolution is more likely to occur when there is an improvement in people’s living conditions. Once standards of living has started to rise, people’s level of expectations also go up. If improvement in actual conditions subsequently slows down, propensities to revolt are created because rising expectations are frustrated.

Charles Tilly’s theory

Four main components of social movement / collective action;

1. The organization

2. Mobilization

3. Common interest

4. Opportunity