1. Introduction
India is an agriculturally important country. Two-thirds of its population is engaged in agricultural activities. Agriculture is a primary activity that produces most of the food we consume. It also produces raw material for various industries and some agricultural products like tea, coffee and spices are also exported.
📌 Key Fact
Agriculture provides livelihood for more than 60% of India’s population and is the backbone of the rural economy.
2. Types of Farming
A. Primitive Subsistence Farming (Shifting Cultivation)
Practised on small patches of land using primitive tools like hoe, dao and digging sticks with family/community labour. Depends on monsoon, natural soil fertility and environment. It is a ‘slash and burn’ agriculture — farmers clear, cultivate, then shift when soil fertility declines, allowing nature to replenish it. Land productivity is low as no fertilisers or modern inputs are used.
🔵 Regional Names for Shifting Cultivation (NCERT Sidebar – Frequently Asked)
| Name | Region / State |
|---|---|
| Jhumming | North-eastern states (Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland) — also the general term used |
| Pamlou | Manipur |
| Dipa | Bastar district, Chhattisgarh and Andaman & Nicobar Islands |
| Bewar / Dahiya | Madhya Pradesh |
| Podu / Penda | Andhra Pradesh |
| Pama Dabi / Koman / Bringa | Odisha |
| Kumari | Western Ghats |
| Valre / Waltre | South-eastern Rajasthan |
| Khil | Himalayan belt |
| Kuruwa | Jharkhand |
🌍 International Names for ‘Jhumming’ (NCERT Sidebar)
Milpa (Mexico & Central America) | Conuco (Venezuela) | Roca (Brazil) | Masole (Central Africa) | Ladang (Indonesia) | Ray (Vietnam)
B. Intensive Subsistence Farming
Practised in areas of high population pressure on land. It is labour-intensive farming where high doses of biochemical inputs and irrigation are used for higher production. The ‘right of inheritance’ leads to fragmentation of land holdings, rendering them uneconomical, but farmers continue to extract maximum output due to absence of alternative livelihood.
C. Commercial Farming
Main characteristic: use of higher doses of modern inputs — HYV seeds, chemical fertilisers, insecticides and pesticides for higher productivity. Degree of commercialisation varies by region.
📌 Important Example (NCERT)
Rice is a commercial crop in Haryana and Punjab, but a subsistence crop in Odisha — same crop, different economic roles by region.
D. Plantation Agriculture
A type of commercial farming where a single crop is grown on a large area. Plantations have an interface of agriculture and industry. Features: large tracts of land, capital-intensive inputs, migrant labourers; all produce used as raw material for respective industries. Requires a well-developed transport and communication network.
Important plantation crops in India: Tea, Coffee, Rubber, Sugarcane, Banana. Tea in Assam and North Bengal; Coffee in Karnataka.
🔵 Rinjha Story (NCERT Sidebar)
Rinjha lived in Diphu, Assam — her family practised shifting cultivation (Jhumming). She helped irrigate fields using a bamboo canal from a nearby spring. The story illustrates the unknowing cycle of shifting cultivation as soil fertility declines each season.
3. Cropping Pattern – Three Seasons
| Season | Sowing Period | Harvesting Period | Important Crops |
|---|---|---|---|
| Rabi | October – December (winter) | April – June (summer) | Wheat, barley, peas, gram, mustard |
| Kharif | Onset of monsoon | September – October | Paddy, maize, jowar, bajra, tur (arhar), moong, urad, cotton, jute, groundnut, soyabean |
| Zaid | Between Rabi & Kharif (summer months) | Short season | Watermelon, muskmelon, cucumber, vegetables, fodder crops |
📌 Special Notes
Rabi crops in Punjab, Haryana, western UP and parts of Rajasthan benefited from the Green Revolution and western temperate cyclones (winter precipitation). Sugarcane takes almost a year to grow (not classified under any single season). In Assam, West Bengal and Odisha, three crops of paddy are grown: Aus, Aman and Boro.
4. Major Crops – Geographical Conditions and Distribution
A. Rice
India: Distribution of Rice (NCERT)
| Feature | Details |
|---|---|
| Crop type | Kharif crop; staple food crop of a majority of people |
| India’s rank | Second largest producer in the world after China |
| Temperature | Above 25°C |
| Rainfall | Above 100 cm annual; high humidity; irrigated in less-rainfall areas |
| Major regions | Plains of north and north-eastern India, coastal areas, deltaic regions |
| Major states | Assam, West Bengal, coastal Odisha, AP, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Maharashtra (Konkan coast), UP, Bihar. Also Punjab & Haryana (via canal irrigation and tubewells) |
| Three-crop states | Assam, West Bengal, Odisha → Aus, Aman, Boro |
B. Wheat
India: Distribution of Wheat (NCERT)
| Feature | Details |
|---|---|
| Crop type | Rabi crop; second most important cereal crop |
| Temperature | Cool growing season; bright sunshine at ripening |
| Rainfall | 50–75 cm, evenly distributed over growing season |
| Two wheat zones | 1. Ganga-Satluj plains in north-west; 2. Black soil region of Deccan |
| Major states | Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan |
C. Millets (Coarse Grains – High Nutritional Value)
| Millet | Key Feature | Soil / Condition | Major States |
|---|---|---|---|
| Jowar | 3rd most important food crop by area & production; rain-fed; hardly needs irrigation | Moist areas | Maharashtra, Karnataka, AP, MP |
| Bajra | Grows well on sandy and shallow black soil | Sandy soils | Rajasthan, UP, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Haryana |
| Ragi | Rich in iron, calcium, micro-nutrients and roughage; crop of dry regions | Red, black, sandy, loamy, shallow black soils | Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, HP, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Jharkhand, Arunachal Pradesh |
D. Maize
| Feature | Details |
|---|---|
| Use | Both food and fodder |
| Season | Primarily Kharif; in Bihar also grown in Rabi season |
| Temperature | 21°C to 27°C |
| Soil | Old alluvial soil |
| Major states | Karnataka, MP, UP, Bihar, AP, Telangana |
E. Pulses
| Feature | Details |
|---|---|
| India’s rank | Largest producer AND consumer of pulses in the world |
| Nutritional role | Major source of protein in vegetarian diet |
| Types | Tur (arhar), urad, moong, masur, peas, gram |
| Special property | Being leguminous crops, all except arhar restore soil fertility by fixing nitrogen from air → grown in rotation with other crops |
| Moisture need | Need less moisture; survive in dry conditions |
| Major states | Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, UP, Karnataka |
F. Sugarcane
| Feature | Details |
|---|---|
| Type | Tropical and subtropical crop |
| Temperature | 21°C to 27°C (hot and humid climate) |
| Rainfall | 75–100 cm annual; irrigation needed in low-rainfall areas |
| India’s rank | Second largest producer after Brazil |
| Products | Sugar, gur (jaggery), khandsari and molasses |
| Major states | Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, AP, Telangana, Bihar, Punjab, Haryana |
G. Oil Seeds
| Feature | Details |
|---|---|
| Coverage | Approximately 12% of total cropped area |
| India’s rank (Groundnut) | Second largest producer after China (2020) |
| Types | Groundnut, mustard, coconut, sesamum (til), soyabean, castor seeds, cotton seeds, linseed, sunflower |
| Groundnut | Kharif crop; accounts for about half of major oilseeds; Gujarat was largest producer (2019-20), followed by Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu |
| Sesamum | Kharif in north; Rabi in south India |
| Castor seed | Both Rabi and Kharif crop |
| Linseed & Mustard | Rabi crops |
| Use | Edible/cooking medium; also raw material for soap, cosmetics, ointments |
H. Tea
| Feature | Details |
|---|---|
| Type | Plantation agriculture (beverage crop) |
| History | Introduced by the British; today most plantations are owned by Indians |
| Climate | Tropical and sub-tropical; warm, moist, frost-free; frequent, evenly distributed showers |
| Soil | Deep, fertile, well-drained soil rich in humus and organic matter |
| Labour | Labour-intensive; requires abundant, cheap and skilled labour; processed within the tea garden |
| India’s rank (2020) | Second largest producer of tea after China |
| Major states | Assam, hills of Darjeeling & Jalpaiguri (WB), Tamil Nadu, Kerala; also HP, Uttarakhand, Meghalaya, AP, Tripura |
I. Coffee
| Feature | Details |
|---|---|
| Variety | Arabica variety (initially brought from Yemen) — in great demand globally |
| Origin in India | Initially cultivated on Baba Budan Hills |
| Current distribution | Confined to Nilgiri in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu |
| Quality | Indian coffee known for its good quality in the world |
J. Horticulture Crops
| India’s rank (2020) | Second largest producer of fruits and vegetables after China |
|---|---|
| Mangoes | Maharashtra, AP, Telangana, UP, West Bengal |
| Oranges | Nagpur and Cherrapunjee (Meghalaya) |
| Bananas | Kerala, Mizoram, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu |
| Lichi & Guava | UP and Bihar |
| Pineapples | Meghalaya |
| Grapes | AP, Telangana, Maharashtra |
| Apples, Pears, Apricots, Walnuts | Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh |
| Vegetables | India produces pea, cauliflower, onion, cabbage, tomato, brinjal, potato |
Source: Pocket Book of Agricultural Statistics, 2022, Govt. of India, Directorate of Economics and Statistics.
5. Non-Food Crops
Rubber
| Feature | Details |
|---|---|
| Type | Equatorial crop; also grown in tropical and sub-tropical areas |
| Climate | Moist and humid; rainfall > 200 cm; temperature above 25°C |
| Use | Important industrial raw material |
| Major states | Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Garo hills of Meghalaya |
Fibre Crops
Four major fibre crops: Cotton, Jute, Hemp and Natural Silk. First three derived from crops; silk is obtained from cocoons of silkworms fed on mulberry leaves. Rearing of silkworms = Sericulture.
| Crop | Key Facts | Major States |
|---|---|---|
| Cotton | India is believed to be original home of cotton plant; raw material for cotton textile industry; second largest producer after China; Kharif crop; requires high temperature, light rainfall or irrigation, 210 frost-free days, bright sunshine; takes 6–8 months to mature; grows in drier parts of black cotton soil of Deccan | Maharashtra, Gujarat, MP, Karnataka, AP, Telangana, TN, Punjab, Haryana, UP |
| Jute | Known as ‘Golden Fibre’; grows on well-drained fertile soils in flood plains (soils renewed every year); high temperature required; used in making gunny bags, mats, ropes, yarn, carpets | West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Odisha, Meghalaya |
6. Technological and Institutional Reforms
Sustained use of land without compatible techno-institutional changes has hindered agricultural development. Agriculture providing livelihood to more than 60% of population needs serious technical and institutional reforms.
Post-Independence Reforms (Chronological)
| Period / Initiative | Details |
|---|---|
| Post-Independence | Collectivisation, consolidation of holdings, cooperation, abolition of zamindari — institutional reforms |
| First Five Year Plan | ‘Land reform‘ was the main focus; right of inheritance led to fragmentation → consolidation needed |
| 1960s–1970s | Green Revolution (package technology — HYV seeds, fertilisers, irrigation) and White Revolution / Operation Flood; but led to concentration of development in few selected areas |
| 1980s–1990s | Comprehensive land development programme — both institutional and technical reforms |
Government Schemes for Farmers
| Scheme / Measure | Purpose |
|---|---|
| Crop insurance | Against drought, flood, cyclone, fire and disease |
| Grameen Banks, cooperative societies and banks | Loan facilities at lower interest rates |
| Kisan Credit Card (KCC) | Credit facility for farmers |
| Personal Accident Insurance Scheme (PAIS) | Insurance for farmers against accidents |
| Weather bulletins on radio and TV | Timely agricultural advisories |
| Minimum Support Price (MSP) | Remunerative and procurement prices to check exploitation by speculators and middlemen |
📗 Bhoodan–Gramdan Movement (NCERT Sidebar – Frequently Asked)
Mahatma Gandhi declared Vinoba Bhave his spiritual heir. After Gandhiji’s martyrdom, Vinoba Bhave undertook padyatra across India. At Pochampally, Telangana, poor landless villagers demanded land. Shri Ram Chandra Reddy offered 80 acres for 80 landless villagers — this act was called ‘Bhoodan’. When zamindars offered entire villages, it was called ‘Gramdan’. Some land-owners donated land due to fear of the land ceiling act. This Bhoodan-Gramdan movement is also known as the ‘Blood-less Revolution’.
7. Master Crop Reference Table (UPSC Quick Revision)
| Crop | Season | India’s World Rank | Temperature | Rainfall (cm) | Top Producers |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rice | Kharif | 2nd (after China) | >25°C | >100 | WB, UP, AP, Telangana, Assam |
| Wheat | Rabi | – | Cool + bright sunshine | 50–75 (even) | Punjab, Haryana, UP, MP, Bihar, Rajasthan |
| Jowar | Kharif | – | – | Rain-fed | Maharashtra, Karnataka, AP, MP |
| Bajra | Kharif | – | – | Sandy soil | Rajasthan, UP, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Haryana |
| Ragi | Kharif | – | Dry regions | Dry | Karnataka, TN, HP, Uttarakhand |
| Maize | Kharif (Rabi in Bihar) | – | 21–27°C | Old alluvial | Karnataka, MP, UP, Bihar, AP |
| Pulses | Both | 1st (producer & consumer) | – | Low moisture | MP, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, UP, Karnataka |
| Sugarcane | ~1 year | 2nd (after Brazil) | 21–27°C | 75–100 | UP, Maharashtra, Karnataka, TN |
| Groundnut | Kharif | 2nd (after China, 2020) | – | – | Gujarat, Rajasthan, TN |
| Tea | Plantation | 2nd (after China, 2020) | Warm, frost-free | Evenly distributed | Assam, WB, TN, Kerala |
| Coffee | Plantation | – | – | – | Karnataka, Kerala, TN (Nilgiri) |
| Cotton | Kharif | 2nd (after China) | High + 210 frost-free days | Light / irrigation | Maharashtra, Gujarat, MP, Punjab |
| Jute | Kharif | – | High | Flood plains | WB, Bihar, Assam, Odisha |
| Rubber | Plantation | – | >25°C | >200 | Kerala, TN, Karnataka |
8. NCERT Exercise Answers
MCQ Answers
- Single crop grown on large area: (b) Plantation Agriculture
- Rabi crop: (b) Gram (Rice, Millets, Cotton are Kharif)
- Leguminous crop: (a) Pulses (fix nitrogen from air)
Wordpuzzle Answers (NCERT Activity)
| Clue | Answer |
|---|---|
| Two staple food crops of India | RICE and WHEAT |
| Summer cropping season of India | KHARIF |
| Pulses like arhar, moong, gram, urad contain… | PROTEIN |
| It is a coarse grain | JOWAR |
| Two important beverages in India | TEA and COFFEE |
| One of the four major fibres grown on black soils | COTTON |
Institutional Reform Programmes (30-word answer)
Collectivisation, consolidation of holdings, cooperation, abolition of zamindari, crop insurance, Grameen Banks, cooperative societies, Kisan Credit Card (KCC), Personal Accident Insurance Scheme (PAIS), Minimum Support Price (MSP), weather bulletins, agricultural programmes on radio and TV.
📝 Practice MCQs – UPSC / State PCS Standard
Q1. ‘Slash and burn’ agriculture is known as ‘Milpa’ in Mexico. What is its equivalent name in Vietnam?
- A. Ladang
- B. Masole
- C. Conuco
- D. Ray
✅ Answer: D | Milpa (Mexico/Central America) | Conuco (Venezuela) | Roca (Brazil) | Masole (Central Africa) | Ladang (Indonesia) | Ray (Vietnam).
Q2. Which millet is very rich in iron, calcium, micro-nutrients and roughage?
- A. Jowar
- B. Bajra
- C. Ragi
- D. Maize
✅ Answer: C | Ragi is a crop of dry regions, rich in iron, calcium and roughage. Jowar is the third most important food crop by area and production.
Q3. India is the second largest producer of sugarcane. Which country is the largest?
- A. China
- B. Brazil
- C. Thailand
- D. USA
✅ Answer: B | India is 2nd after Brazil in sugarcane. For Rice and Tea — 2nd after China. For Groundnut — 2nd after China. For Cotton — 2nd after China.
Q4. The Arabica variety of coffee was initially brought from Yemen and its cultivation was first introduced on:
- A. Nilgiri Hills
- B. Baba Budan Hills
- C. Anaimalai Hills
- D. Cardamom Hills
✅ Answer: B | Arabica coffee from Yemen was initially cultivated on Baba Budan Hills; today confined to Nilgiri in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
Q5. Which of the following pulses does NOT help in restoring soil fertility by fixing nitrogen?
- A. Moong
- B. Gram
- C. Arhar (Tur)
- D. Urad
✅ Answer: C | NCERT specifically states all leguminous pulses EXCEPT arhar (tur) help restore soil fertility by fixing nitrogen from the air.
Q6. Cotton is a Kharif crop that requires how many frost-free days for its growth?
- A. 120 days
- B. 150 days
- C. 180 days
- D. 210 days
✅ Answer: D | Cotton requires high temperature, light rainfall or irrigation, 210 frost-free days and bright sunshine. It takes 6–8 months to mature.
Q7. The Bhoodan-Gramdan movement initiated by Vinoba Bhave is also known as:
- A. Green Revolution
- B. White Revolution
- C. Blood-less Revolution
- D. Silent Revolution
✅ Answer: C | Vinoba Bhave, Gandhi’s spiritual heir, started the movement at Pochampally, Telangana. Shri Ram Chandra Reddy offered 80 acres for 80 landless farmers (Bhoodan). Villages donated = Gramdan.
Q8. Three crops of paddy grown in Assam, West Bengal and Odisha are:
- A. Aman, Boro, Sali
- B. Aus, Aman, Boro
- C. Ahu, Sali, Boro
- D. Kharif, Rabi, Zaid paddy
✅ Answer: B | As per NCERT, three crops of paddy grown per year in Assam, West Bengal and Odisha are Aus, Aman and Boro.
Q9. Jute is known as ‘Golden Fibre’. Which of the following is NOT a use of jute?
- A. Gunny bags
- B. Carpets
- C. Ropes and yarn
- D. Natural rubber products
✅ Answer: D | Jute is used in gunny bags, mats, ropes, yarn, carpets and artefacts. Natural rubber is an entirely different product from the rubber plant.
Q10. Which of the following statements about Sesamum (Til) is correct?
- A. It is a rabi crop in both north and south India
- B. It is a kharif crop in north India and a rabi crop in south India
- C. It is only grown in south India as a rabi crop
- D. It is a zaid season crop across India
✅ Answer: B | NCERT explicitly states: Sesamum is a kharif crop in north India and rabi crop in south India — an example of the same crop having different seasons by region.
