🏛️ Legacy IAS – Bangalore
Cropping Pattern in India
Types · Factors · Cropping Systems · Conservation & Regenerative Agriculture · Current Affairs · PYQs · MCQs
1. What is Cropping Pattern?
Cropping pattern refers to the yearly sequence and spatial arrangement of crops on a piece of land in a given period of time — indicating both temporal (time) and spatial (space) arrangement of crops in a particular area.
Temporal
Yearly sequence of crops on the same land (e.g., mono-cropping)
Spatial
Arrangement of crops on land (e.g., row inter-cropping)
155.9%
Cropping intensity 2022–23 (151% in 2019–20; 111% in 1950–51)
63.81%
Gross cropped area under foodgrains (2020–21; down from 80%+ at Independence)
250+
Double cropping systems in use across India
10.5 M ha
Rice-wheat cropping system — largest double crop area
Key Distinction — Cropping Pattern vs Cropping System:
Cropping Pattern = the proportion of area under various crops at a point in time; yearly sequence and spatial arrangement; what crop rotation most farmers follow in a given area.
Cropping System = a broader term — includes the cropping pattern AND its management to derive benefits from a given resource base under specific environmental conditions. It encompasses water, soil, technology, interrelationships with the environment, and farm resources.
Cropping Pattern = the proportion of area under various crops at a point in time; yearly sequence and spatial arrangement; what crop rotation most farmers follow in a given area.
Cropping System = a broader term — includes the cropping pattern AND its management to derive benefits from a given resource base under specific environmental conditions. It encompasses water, soil, technology, interrelationships with the environment, and farm resources.
Figure 1: Three pillars determining India's cropping pattern — Agronomic, Economic, and Government Policy factors
2. Factors Affecting Cropping Pattern in India
🌿 Geographical Factors
- Relief/Terrain: Rice on irrigated hill terraces; tea and coffee on well-drained slopes; wheat in moderate temperature plains
- Heavy rainfall (150+ cm): East India and West Coast — rice, tea, coffee, jute, sugarcane
- Medium rainfall (75–150 cm): Eastern UP, Bihar, Odisha, MP (east), Vidarbha — rice (high), wheat (low), maize, soybean, cotton
- Low rainfall (25–75 cm): Semi-arid — millets (jowar, bajra, ragi), oilseeds; wheat in irrigated tracts
- Soil type: Clayey → rice; Loamy → wheat; Black regur (Deccan) → cotton; Delta soils (Bengal) → jute; Darjeeling humus → tea
💰 Economic & Individual Factors
- Irrigation: Irrigated areas support multiple crops; rice in south, wheat in north; coarse grains get less attention
- Land holding size: Small farmers → subsistence food crops; Large farms → cash crops; shrinking landholdings limit diversification
- Risk and insurance: Crop insurance enables farmers to adopt plantation crops in southern states
- Literacy: Ignorance of scientific methods (mixed cropping, intercropping) limits diversification
- Financial stability: Cash crops (cotton) need high capital — only in estate farming; marginal farmers adopt low-cost crops
- Value and demand: High-value crops (apples) replacing millets in Himachal; rice in densely populated regions due to assured markets
🏛️ Political & Historical Factors
- MSP distortion: MSP for wheat and rice has been much higher than millets → farmers shift area to rice and wheat → monoculture and regional imbalance
- Subsidies: Water, power, and fertiliser subsidies promote water-intensive crops (paddy in north-west India; sugarcane in Maharashtra)
- Historical colonial legacy: Tea plantations in Assam and Kangra Valley — British era; Sugarcane expanded in North India as colonial replacement for indigo when artificial dyes killed its market
- Post-Green Revolution: Surplus rice and wheat production shifted policy focus to oilseeds and pulses
- Food Crops Acts: Government legislation can push farmers toward or away from specific crops
3. Types of Cropping Patterns in India
India follows a diverse range of cropping patterns shaped by regional agro-climatic conditions. The major types are:
Cropping Pattern
🌾 Mono-Cropping
The same crop is cultivated on the same land year after year. Simple to manage but reduces soil fertility over time. Example: mono-crop paddy (rice) in floodplains. Most prevalent among marginal farmers due to small landholdings.
Cropping Pattern
🌱 Mixed Cropping
Two or more crops grown simultaneously on the same land without a fixed row pattern. Reduces risk of complete crop failure — if one crop fails, another may survive. Common among subsistence farmers in semi-arid regions.
Cropping Pattern
🔄 Relay Cropping
Next crop is planted before the first crop is fully harvested — overlapping use of time. Maximises productivity. Example (West Bengal rice-based): seed of succeeding crops like lentil, gram, pea broadcast into maturing rice crop.
Cropping System
🌿 Inter-Cropping
Different crops grown together on the same field in a planned row arrangement. Better use of space and resources. Example: maize + soybean in alternate rows. A key practice in Conservation Agriculture.
Cropping System
📅 Sequential Cropping
Different crops cultivated one after another (in sequence) in the same field within a year. Ensures continuous use of the land. Example: Rice → Wheat → Mung (three crops in a year on same land).
Cropping System
🔃 Crop Rotation
Crops changed from year to year to prevent soil exhaustion and pest build-up. Most effective means for keeping land weed-free. Including one leguminous crop in rotation offsets external nitrogen fertiliser needs.
New System
🌿 Ratoon Cropping
Crop re-grown from roots after harvest without re-sowing. Example: sugarcane ratoon crop. Saves input cost on seeds and initial tillage. Reduces turnaround time between crops.
Alternative
🌳 Agroforestry / Mixed Varietal
Mixing trees with crops (agroforestry) or mixing early and late varieties of the same crop. Example (West Bengal): mixing ahu (early) and bao (deep water) rice varieties on the same land — called mixed varietal cropping.
Pre-dominant Cropping Systems of India (by area):
Rice-wheat = 10.5 M ha (largest) · Rice-rice = 4.7 M ha · Rice-pulses = 3.5 M ha · Maize-wheat = 1.8 M ha · Rice-vegetable = 1.4 M ha · Millet-wheat = 2.44 M ha · Cotton-wheat = 1.39 M ha
Total double cropping systems in use: 250+
Rice-wheat = 10.5 M ha (largest) · Rice-rice = 4.7 M ha · Rice-pulses = 3.5 M ha · Maize-wheat = 1.8 M ha · Rice-vegetable = 1.4 M ha · Millet-wheat = 2.44 M ha · Cotton-wheat = 1.39 M ha
Total double cropping systems in use: 250+
💡 Mnemonic — Types of Cropping (MMRRIS)
Mono-cropping · Mixed cropping · Relay cropping · Ratoon cropping · Inter-cropping · Sequential croppingRemember: "Many Modern Rabi Rotations Increase Sustainability"
4. Significance of Complex Cropping Systems
Complex cropping systems — involving multiple crops, livestock, and managed nutrient recycling — provide multiple overlapping benefits that simple monocultures cannot:
| Benefit | Mechanism | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Soil fertility enhancement | Nitrogen-fixing leguminous crops add nitrogen; perennial forages and millets enhance soil organic carbon | Gram after wheat — wheat gets residual nitrogen from gram roots |
| Pest and disease control | Biodiversity provides habitat for predators of pests; heterogeneity increases barriers against pest dispersal | Intercropping maize with legumes reduces fall armyworm spread |
| Weed control | Crop rotation prevents specific weeds from adapting; diverse crops compete against weeds | Crop rotation is the most effective means of keeping land weed-free |
| Efficient resource use | Multiple activities scientifically planned — fodder crops feed livestock; animal dung becomes organic manure | Dairy + crop farming integration (circular nutrient use) |
| Risk reduction | Different crops respond differently to climate vagaries; total crop failure risk reduced | Mixed cropping in semi-arid regions — if jowar fails, bajra may survive |
| Food and income security | Diversified income streams, reduced crop failure risk, and better market access | Systematic intercropping can raise cropping intensity to 400–500% even in rainfed systems |
5. Changes in India's Cropping System
Cropping intensity increased from 111% in 1950–51 to 151% in 2019–20 to 155.9% in 2022–23 — a 44% rise since Independence (per Land Use Statistics 2022–23, Government of India). The Vision IAS PDF (2024) cites 151% for 2019–20; the latest official data puts it at 155.9% for 2022–23 — both are valid for UPSC depending on which year is cited. Cropping intensity refers to raising multiple crops from the same field during one agricultural year. Higher intensity = higher proportion of net sown area being cropped more than once. There exists large regional variation in India (<125% to >200%). Population pressure has forced land to yield more per unit area. Systematic intercropping can raise CI to 400–500% even in rainfed areas (which still account for 42% of net cropped area).
At Independence, over 80% of gross cropped area was under food crops. By 2020–21, this declined to 63.81% — a reduction of ~16%. Wheat's share grew from only 10.42% in 1970–71 to 15.45% in 2020–21; rice area remained relatively constant. The shift is driven by commercialisation of agriculture — farmers seeking better price realisation from non-food crops. However, the predominance of foodgrains is still there; the decline is gradual.
India's cropping pattern has seen a rampant increase in water-intensive crops — sugarcane in Maharashtra and paddy in north-west India — both in water-stressed regions. Rice and sugarcane together consume more than 60% of irrigation water. Key drivers: (1) Subsidies on water, power, and fertiliser make water-intensive crops profitable; (2) MSP is most effective for sugarcane, wheat, and rice; (3) HYV seeds give higher yields but require more water than traditional varieties; (4) Lack of farmer awareness about natural resource strain. Government is now promoting ZBNF, Conservation Agriculture, and Regenerative Agriculture in response.
Oilseeds: Share of area under oilseeds increased from 9.85% (1970–71) to 13.52% (2020–21) — driven by ISOPOM and NMEO-Oil Palm. Commercial crops: Cotton area rose from 4.70% to 6.55%; Sugarcane from 1.62% to 2.43% (1970–71 to 2020–21). Assured prices through cooperatives (sugarcane) and government procurement (cotton) drive this. Horticulture: Production surpassed foodgrain production — 369 MT vs ~330 MT in 2024–25. India is 2nd largest F&V producer globally.
Area under coarse cereals (jowar, bajra, maize, millets, barley) has declined significantly from 28.48% in 1970–71 to 11.7% in 2020–21. However, yield has witnessed significant rise since FY2016. Reasons: (1) Spread of irrigation facilities enables other water-intensive crops; (2) Improved inputs and better seeds available for rice and wheat; (3) Shift in consumption patterns — people moved from nutrient-rich coarse cereals to rice and wheat; (4) Low MSP procurement for millets compared to 45–70% for wheat and rice (vs only 1–3% for pearl millet and sorghum). Per capita millet consumption fell from 32.9 kg to 3.87 kg (1962 to 2022).
Climate change is shifting cropping patterns across India: (1) Kharif to Rabi shift: In Assam's Dhemaji district, farmers are cultivating more Rabi crops (mustard, potatoes, peas) rather than Kharif rice due to increased flooding. (2) Early harvest: In 2023, mustard was harvested in February instead of late March — unprecedented. (3) Higher altitude shifts: Apple farmers in Himachal Pradesh shifted to higher altitudes or switched to vegetable-fruit intercropping at lower altitudes. (4) Aquaculture shift: In south Gujarat, saltwater ingress turned farmers from agriculture to aquaculture. (5) Less water-intensive crops: Maharashtra farmers in drought-prone regions shifted from grapes to pomegranates. Climate projections: rainfed rice yield may fall 20% by 2050 and 47% by 2080; wheat yield may fall 19.3% by 2050 without adaptation.
The Rice-Wheat Monoculture Problem — UPSC Critical Point:
The rice-wheat system (10.5 M ha) has created a "success-turned-bane" situation:
• Punjab-Haryana: 80%+ blocks of groundwater overexploited due to paddy
• Soil salinisation, water pollution, reduction in soil fertility from HYV + heavy fertiliser use
• Stubble burning — contributes to Delhi's severe winter pollution
• MSP lock-in — farmers won't diversify without guaranteed price for alternatives
• Rice consumes most water per tonne of output but delivers least nutrients (iron, zinc, protein) among cereals
The rice-wheat system (10.5 M ha) has created a "success-turned-bane" situation:
• Punjab-Haryana: 80%+ blocks of groundwater overexploited due to paddy
• Soil salinisation, water pollution, reduction in soil fertility from HYV + heavy fertiliser use
• Stubble burning — contributes to Delhi's severe winter pollution
• MSP lock-in — farmers won't diversify without guaranteed price for alternatives
• Rice consumes most water per tonne of output but delivers least nutrients (iron, zinc, protein) among cereals
6. New Approaches — Conservation, Regenerative & Zero Budget Farming
🌱 Conservation Agriculture (CA)
- Definition: Farming system that prevents losses of arable land while regenerating degraded soils
- Three Principles: (1) Permanent soil cover, (2) Minimum soil disturbance (zero tillage), (3) Diversification of plant species
- Zero tillage: Direct planting through surface residues of previous crop — saves energy, maintains soil structure
- Combined with: Intercropping and crop rotation — core principles of sustainable intensification
- Benefits: Conserves natural resources and biodiversity; increases available soil water; reduces heat and drought stress; builds long-term soil health
- Not organic: CA farmers may initially use inorganic fertilisers; organic farmers use tillage (CA does not)
🌍 Regenerative Agriculture
- Definition: Holistic farming system focusing on soil health, food quality, biodiversity, water and air quality
- Context: Current intensive agriculture has led to soil degradation — may not be enough soil to feed world in next 50 years
- Benefits: Improves soil health through increased organic matter, biota and biodiversity; enhances water-holding capacity and carbon sequestration
- Goes beyond sustainability — actively regenerates and restores soil and ecosystem
- Examples globally: Australia (mix of crops and grazing plants for soil carbon); Brazil (cover crops + organic alternatives with cotton); Tanzania (food crops + cash crop intercropping)
🐄 Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF)
- Developer: Subhash Palekar — farming without chemicals, without credit, spending zero on purchased inputs
- Core concept: Uses natural resources in and around crops — earthworms, cow dung, urine, neem, tobacco, green chillies
- Four Pillars (Wheels):
(1) Bijamrita — seed treatment with cow dung and cow urine from native (Bos-indicus/desi) cows to protect against fungal diseases
(2) Jiwamrita — bio-fertiliser from local cow dung and cow urine; neem, tobacco extracts for pest management
(3) Mulching — conserve soil moisture; increase soil aeration and health
(4) Waaphasa — utilise soil moisture; reduce water loss - Other elements: Intercropping (monocot + dicot); contours and bunds for rainwater preservation; revival of local earthworms; Desi cow (Bos-indicus) dung preferred over European breeds
- Why ZBNF? NSSO data: 70%+ agricultural households spend more than they earn; 50%+ farmers in debt due to fertiliser and pesticide costs
- Government push: Andhra Pradesh launched ZBNF at scale — targeting all farmers; now adopted under natural farming missions
BGREI — Bringing Green Revolution to Eastern India: A sub-scheme of RKVY, launched in 2010–11 to address constraints limiting productivity of rice-based cropping systems in 7 eastern states — Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Odisha, Eastern UP (Purvanchal), and West Bengal. Objectives: increase rice and wheat production using latest technologies; promote cultivation in rice fallow areas to increase cropping intensity; create water harvesting structures; promote post-harvest technology. This is the "second Green Revolution" for eastern India — the region largely bypassed by the original Green Revolution.
7. Current Affairs 2024–25 — Cropping Pattern
Policy — 2025
Budget 2025–26 | Ministry of Agriculture
PM Dhan-Dhaanya Krishi Yojana — Crop Diversification Mandate in 100 Districts
The PM Dhan-Dhaanya Krishi Yojana targets 100 agriculture-lagging districts for crop diversification — moving away from wheat-rice monoculture toward pulses, oilseeds, and nutri-cereals (Shree Anna). District agricultural plans mandate cropping pattern shift. This directly addresses the structural problem of MSP-driven rice-wheat monoculture, particularly in eastern India where Kharif productivity remains low despite favourable soil and climate for diverse crops.
Policy — 2024
Ministry of Agriculture | 2024
National Mission on Natural Farming (NMNF) — Scaling ZBNF Nationally
The National Mission on Natural Farming (NMNF) was launched with ₹2,481 crore outlay to scale chemical-free natural farming across India. It promotes ZBNF principles — Bijamrita, Jiwamrita, and Waaphasa — and targets converting 1 crore farmers to natural farming by 2025–26. The mission uses Farmer Field Schools (FFS) and links natural farmers to organic certification and premium markets. Andhra Pradesh's ZBNF success (covering 6 lakh+ farmers) is the model.
Data — 2024
Ministry of Agriculture | 2024
Cropping Intensity — India at 155.9% (2022–23); Potential for 400–500%
India's cropping intensity has increased from 111% (1950–51) to 151% (2019–20) to 155.9% (2022–23) per Land Use Statistics 2022–23 published by the Government of India — a 44% rise since Independence. However, scientific intercropping has the potential to raise intensity to 400–500% even in rainfed systems — which still account for 42% of net cropped area. The Digital Agriculture Mission's AgriStack and FASAL platforms are now being used to optimise cropping intensity by providing real-time agro-meteorological advisories to farmers, enabling better timing of sequential and relay cropping decisions.
Crisis — 2023–24
2023 | Punjab / Haryana
Groundwater Crisis — Rice-Wheat System's Existential Threat to Punjab
Over 80% of Punjab's groundwater blocks are overexploited — directly caused by the paddy-wheat-paddy monoculture maintained by MSP incentives. The Punjab government has been promoting Direct Seeded Rice (DSR) technology to reduce water use by 25–30% and offering ₹1,500/acre incentive for DSR adoption. However, stubble burning — a byproduct of the rice-wheat system — added to Delhi's severe pollution in October–November 2023. The rice-wheat system is the structural driver of both Punjab's groundwater crisis and North India's winter air quality crisis.
Scheme — 2024
Ministry of Agriculture | 2024
Mustard Mission & NMEO-Oil Palm — Rabi Oilseed Cropping Pattern Shift
India imports ~$14 billion of edible oils annually — its largest agricultural import bill. To address this, the National Mission on Edible Oils — Oil Palm (NMEO-OP) targets 10 lakh ha expansion for oil palm (primarily in Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and north-eastern states). Simultaneously, the mustard mission is expanding Rabi oilseed area — mustard production hit 128.73 lakh tonnes in 2024–25 (record). This represents a deliberate cropping pattern shift from wheat-rice toward Rabi oilseeds as a policy goal — diversifying both cropping pattern and reducing import dependency.
Technology — 2024
GEAC / Ministry of Agriculture | 2022–2024
GM Mustard DMH-11 — Awaiting Commercial Cultivation Clearance
The Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC) approved the environmental release of Mustard hybrid DMH-11 and its parental lines in 2022 for seed production and testing — one step from full commercial cultivation. India currently has Bt Cotton as its only commercially grown GM crop. GM Mustard could change the Rabi oilseed cropping pattern significantly — if approved, DMH-11 is estimated to increase mustard yield by 25–30%, directly reducing import dependency. The debate over GM crops' impact on biodiversity, farmer autonomy, and biosafety remains politically sensitive.
8. Prelims PYQs — Cropping Pattern
Q1. Consider the following statements about Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF):
1. It was developed by Subhash Palekar.
2. It involves farming without use of chemicals and without spending money on purchased inputs.
3. Bijamrita is used for seed treatment and Jiwamrita is a bio-fertiliser in ZBNF.
4. ZBNF uses dung and urine from European breeds of cows as they have higher microbial concentrations.
How many of the above statements are correct?
1. It was developed by Subhash Palekar.
2. It involves farming without use of chemicals and without spending money on purchased inputs.
3. Bijamrita is used for seed treatment and Jiwamrita is a bio-fertiliser in ZBNF.
4. ZBNF uses dung and urine from European breeds of cows as they have higher microbial concentrations.
How many of the above statements are correct?
- (a) Only one
- (b) Only two
- ✓ (c) Only three (1, 2, and 3)
- (d) All four
Statements 1, 2, and 3 are correct. Statement 4 is WRONG — ZBNF revolves around Desi cow (Bos-indicus / humped cow), NOT European breeds. Dung from Bos-indicus is considered most beneficial and has the highest concentrations of micro-organisms compared to European breeds (like Holstein). This is a key UPSC trap. Bijamrita (seed treatment) and Jiwamrita (bio-fertiliser from cow dung and urine) — along with Mulching and Waaphasa (soil moisture) — form the four pillars of ZBNF.
Q2. "Relay cropping" in the context of Indian agriculture refers to which of the following?
- (a) Growing two or more crops simultaneously on the same field in planned rows
- (b) Growing the same crop year after year on the same land with regular fertiliser application
- ✓ (c) Planting the next crop before the first crop is fully harvested — overlapping use of time to maximise productivity
- (d) A system where crops are changed from year to year to prevent soil exhaustion and pest build-up
Relay cropping involves planting the next crop before the first crop is fully harvested — creating an overlap in time between the two crops. This maximises land productivity and is a variant of multiple cropping. In West Bengal's rice-based system, seeds of succeeding crops like lentil, gram, pea, and lathyrus are broadcast into maturing rice before harvest. Option (a) = Inter-cropping; Option (b) = Mono-cropping; Option (d) = Crop rotation. The key distinguisher of relay cropping is the temporal overlap — the second crop starts before the first is harvested.
Q3. With reference to Conservation Agriculture in India, consider the following statements:
1. Conservation Agriculture promotes minimum soil disturbance through zero-tillage farming.
2. Conservation Agriculture and Organic Farming are essentially the same — both avoid tillage.
3. Conservation Agriculture can be considered a form of Climate-Smart Agriculture.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
1. Conservation Agriculture promotes minimum soil disturbance through zero-tillage farming.
2. Conservation Agriculture and Organic Farming are essentially the same — both avoid tillage.
3. Conservation Agriculture can be considered a form of Climate-Smart Agriculture.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- (a) 1 only
- (b) 2 and 3 only
- ✓ (c) 1 and 3 only
- (d) All three
Statements 1 and 3 are correct. Statement 2 is WRONG — Conservation Agriculture and Organic Farming are NOT the same. The key difference: Organic farmers USE tillage/plowing to remove weeds without inorganic fertilisers. Conservation Agriculture farmers do NOT till — they use a permanent soil cover and plant seeds through this layer; they may initially use inorganic fertilisers to manage weeds, especially in low-fertility soils. Statement 3 is correct — Conservation Agriculture systems can be considered climate-smart as they deliver on climate-smart agriculture objectives (carbon sequestration, adaptation, food security).
Q4. Which of the following best describes "cropping intensity" in the context of Indian agriculture?
- (a) The number of different crop varieties grown in a single field in one year
- (b) The weight of produce (in tonnes) per hectare of land in a given season
- ✓ (c) The ratio of total cropped area to net sown area, expressed as a percentage — indicating how many times the same land is cropped in a year
- (d) The percentage of gross cropped area devoted to a single dominant crop
Cropping intensity refers to raising a number of crops from the same field during one agricultural year. It is expressed as: CI = (Total Cropped Area / Net Sown Area) × 100. Higher cropping intensity means a higher proportion of net sown area is being cropped more than once during a year. India's CI increased from 111% (1950–51) to 151% (2019–20) to 155.9% (2022–23) per Land Use Statistics 2022–23 — a 44% rise since Independence. A CI of 200% means, on average, every hectare of land is cropped twice a year. Systematic intercropping can raise CI to 400–500% even in rainfed systems. Option (b) = yield; Option (a) and (d) are incorrect definitions.
Q5. Consider the following changes observed in India's cropping pattern since Independence:
1. Area under foodgrains declined from 80%+ to about 64% of gross cropped area.
2. Area under coarse cereals (jowar, bajra, millets) increased from 28.48% to over 35%.
3. Cropping intensity increased from 111% to 151%.
4. Area under oilseeds increased from about 9.85% to 13.52%.
Which of the statements are correct?
1. Area under foodgrains declined from 80%+ to about 64% of gross cropped area.
2. Area under coarse cereals (jowar, bajra, millets) increased from 28.48% to over 35%.
3. Cropping intensity increased from 111% to 151%.
4. Area under oilseeds increased from about 9.85% to 13.52%.
Which of the statements are correct?
- (a) 1, 3 and 4 only
- (b) 2, 3 and 4 only
- ✓ (c) 1, 3 and 4 only
- (d) All four
Statements 1, 3, and 4 are correct. Statement 2 is WRONG — area under coarse cereals (jowar, bajra, maize, millets, barley) has declined significantly from 28.48% in 1970–71 to only 11.7% in 2020–21 — not increased. This decline is one of India's major agricultural policy failures — coarse cereals are nutritionally rich but were marginalised by the MSP-driven rice-wheat focus and spread of irrigation. Statement 1 (foodgrain area: 80%+ → 63.81%), Statement 3 (CI: 111% → 151%; latest figure is 155.9% for 2022–23 per Land Use Statistics), and Statement 4 (oilseeds: 9.85% → 13.52%) are all correct data points confirmed by NABARD Working Paper 2022 and official government sources.
9. Mains PYQs — Cropping Pattern (Actual UPSC Questions)
Q1. What are the major reasons for declining rice and wheat yield in the cropping system? How does crop diversification help stabilise the yield of the crop in the system? (150 words)
Introduction: India's rice-wheat system — covering 10.5 million hectares — has transformed food security but now faces declining yield growth due to structural and ecological exhaustion.
Reasons for Declining Rice-Wheat Yield:
• Soil degradation: Continuous rice-wheat cultivation depletes soil nutrients, especially micronutrients (zinc, iron); organic matter declines; soil microbiome impoverished
• Groundwater depletion: Punjab: 80%+ blocks overexploited; falling water table increases energy cost and reduces irrigation quality
• Climate change: Wheat yield projected to fall 19.3% by 2050 without adaptation; rice rainfed yield may fall 20% by 2050
• Pest resistance: Monoculture creates ideal conditions for pest and pathogen adaptation
• Diminishing returns from HYV: Initial dramatic yield gains from Green Revolution seeds are plateauing; marginal returns declining
• Burning of residues: Stubble burning destroys soil organisms and organic carbon
How Crop Diversification Stabilises Yield:
• Soil health restoration: Including leguminous crops (gram, moong) in rotation adds nitrogen, organic matter — reduces fertiliser input
• Breaking pest cycles: Diverse cropping interrupts pest and pathogen life cycles, reducing chemical pesticide dependence
• Risk distribution: Multiple crops mean climate shocks affecting one crop don't devastate total income
• Water efficiency: Replacing water-intensive paddy with millets or pulses reduces groundwater stress
• Market diversification: Multiple crops access different markets — less exposure to a single commodity price crash
Way Forward: PM Dhan-Dhaanya Yojana (crop diversification in 100 districts), BGREI for eastern India, Shree Anna (millet) mission, NMEO for oilseeds — policy instruments to enable diversification alongside MSP reform.
Conclusion: Crop diversification is not just agronomic wisdom — it is an ecological imperative for sustaining India's food security beyond the wheat-rice era.
Reasons for Declining Rice-Wheat Yield:
• Soil degradation: Continuous rice-wheat cultivation depletes soil nutrients, especially micronutrients (zinc, iron); organic matter declines; soil microbiome impoverished
• Groundwater depletion: Punjab: 80%+ blocks overexploited; falling water table increases energy cost and reduces irrigation quality
• Climate change: Wheat yield projected to fall 19.3% by 2050 without adaptation; rice rainfed yield may fall 20% by 2050
• Pest resistance: Monoculture creates ideal conditions for pest and pathogen adaptation
• Diminishing returns from HYV: Initial dramatic yield gains from Green Revolution seeds are plateauing; marginal returns declining
• Burning of residues: Stubble burning destroys soil organisms and organic carbon
How Crop Diversification Stabilises Yield:
• Soil health restoration: Including leguminous crops (gram, moong) in rotation adds nitrogen, organic matter — reduces fertiliser input
• Breaking pest cycles: Diverse cropping interrupts pest and pathogen life cycles, reducing chemical pesticide dependence
• Risk distribution: Multiple crops mean climate shocks affecting one crop don't devastate total income
• Water efficiency: Replacing water-intensive paddy with millets or pulses reduces groundwater stress
• Market diversification: Multiple crops access different markets — less exposure to a single commodity price crash
Way Forward: PM Dhan-Dhaanya Yojana (crop diversification in 100 districts), BGREI for eastern India, Shree Anna (millet) mission, NMEO for oilseeds — policy instruments to enable diversification alongside MSP reform.
Conclusion: Crop diversification is not just agronomic wisdom — it is an ecological imperative for sustaining India's food security beyond the wheat-rice era.
Q2. How do subsidies affect the cropping pattern, crop diversity, and economy of farmers? What is the significance of crop insurance, MSP, and food processing for small and marginal farmers? (250 words)
Introduction: Government subsidies are double-edged instruments — while they ensure food security and farmer income, their distortionary effects have locked India into a narrow wheat-rice monoculture, undermining crop diversity and ecological sustainability.
How Subsidies Affect Cropping Pattern:
• Water and power subsidies: Free/cheap electricity and subsidised irrigation water make water-intensive crops (paddy, sugarcane) artificially profitable → farmers grow them in water-scarce regions (Punjab paddy; Maharashtra sugarcane)
• Fertiliser subsidies: Distorted NPK ratio (excessive nitrogen use) — suited for rice and wheat but not other crops → locks farmers into cereal cultivation
• MSP subsidy (procurement-linked): Effective MSP procurement only for rice and wheat (45–70% of production) vs millets (1–15%) → massive shift away from millets; intercrop price disparities shift acreage
• Net effect on diversity: Shrinking millet area (28.48% → 11.7%), rising monoculture, loss of traditional crop varieties
Crop Insurance (PMFBY) for Small Farmers:
• Reduces risk-aversion — farmers willing to try new or high-value crops when insured
• Plantation crop expansion in South India linked to insurance coverage
• Challenge: low penetration; basis risk; delayed claims reduce trust
MSP's Significance:
• Price floor preventing distress sale — especially for wheat, rice, sugarcane
• Problem: Skewed — only 23 crops notified; only 2–3 with effective procurement
• Solution needed: Expand effective procurement for pulses, oilseeds, millets
Food Processing:
• Reduces post-harvest losses (currently 15–30% for F&V)
• PMFME — formalises micro-units; ODOP approach; ₹10,000 crore outlay
• Value addition means small farmers capture more of consumer price
• Opens export markets for processed products (frozen fries, juices, spices)
Conclusion: Subsidies are necessary but must be redesigned to reward crop diversity rather than penalise it. A reform triangle of subsidy rationalisation + expanded MSP coverage + food processing investment can transform India's cropping pattern while protecting small farmer income.
How Subsidies Affect Cropping Pattern:
• Water and power subsidies: Free/cheap electricity and subsidised irrigation water make water-intensive crops (paddy, sugarcane) artificially profitable → farmers grow them in water-scarce regions (Punjab paddy; Maharashtra sugarcane)
• Fertiliser subsidies: Distorted NPK ratio (excessive nitrogen use) — suited for rice and wheat but not other crops → locks farmers into cereal cultivation
• MSP subsidy (procurement-linked): Effective MSP procurement only for rice and wheat (45–70% of production) vs millets (1–15%) → massive shift away from millets; intercrop price disparities shift acreage
• Net effect on diversity: Shrinking millet area (28.48% → 11.7%), rising monoculture, loss of traditional crop varieties
Crop Insurance (PMFBY) for Small Farmers:
• Reduces risk-aversion — farmers willing to try new or high-value crops when insured
• Plantation crop expansion in South India linked to insurance coverage
• Challenge: low penetration; basis risk; delayed claims reduce trust
MSP's Significance:
• Price floor preventing distress sale — especially for wheat, rice, sugarcane
• Problem: Skewed — only 23 crops notified; only 2–3 with effective procurement
• Solution needed: Expand effective procurement for pulses, oilseeds, millets
Food Processing:
• Reduces post-harvest losses (currently 15–30% for F&V)
• PMFME — formalises micro-units; ODOP approach; ₹10,000 crore outlay
• Value addition means small farmers capture more of consumer price
• Opens export markets for processed products (frozen fries, juices, spices)
Conclusion: Subsidies are necessary but must be redesigned to reward crop diversity rather than penalise it. A reform triangle of subsidy rationalisation + expanded MSP coverage + food processing investment can transform India's cropping pattern while protecting small farmer income.
10. Mock Mains Questions — Cropping Pattern
Mains MockGS III15 Marks
⏱ Suggested time: 15 minutes | 250 words
Q1. "The rice-wheat cropping system has been the backbone of India's food security but is now becoming its greatest agricultural liability." Critically examine with reference to groundwater, soil health, and climate change.
10.5 M ha rice-wheatPunjab 80% overexploitedWheat yield -19.3% by 2050Stubble burningBGREI / DSR
Introduction: The rice-wheat cropping system — covering 10.5 million hectares, particularly in Punjab, Haryana, and western UP — was the engine of the Green Revolution. It transformed India from a "ship-to-mouth" nation to the world's second largest wheat and rice producer. Yet this very success has generated a cascade of ecological and economic liabilities that threaten the system's long-term viability.
Why It Was the Backbone:
• Wheat production: 11 MT (1960) → 115.43 MT (2024–25 record)
• Rice production: 35 MT → 120.68 MT (Kharif 2024–25 record)
• PDS relies on rice-wheat procurement (45–70% of production); food security for 800+ million people
• Punjab-Haryana: 3–4 crops per year; highest productivity per hectare in India
Groundwater Crisis:
• Punjab: 80%+ blocks overexploited (CGWB 2023) — paddy cultivation is the primary cause
• Rice requires 1,200–1,500 litres of water per kg of grain produced
• Falling water tables → increasing energy cost for pumping → debt trap for farmers
• Direct Seeded Rice (DSR) technology reduces water use by 25–30%; Punjab offering ₹1,500/acre DSR incentive — insufficient to change behaviour at scale
Soil Health Degradation:
• Continuous rice-wheat depletes soil organic carbon, micronutrients (zinc, manganese, iron)
• Diminishing returns from HYV seeds — yield growth plateauing despite higher input use
• Stubble burning: 35 million tonnes of paddy straw burnt annually in Punjab-Haryana — destroys soil organic matter, releases CO₂, PM2.5; drives Delhi's winter air crisis
• Soil salinisation in low-lying paddy areas due to waterlogging
Climate Change Threat:
• Wheat yield projected to fall 19.3% by 2050 and 40% by 2080 without adaptation
• Rainfed rice yields may fall 20% by 2050 and 47% by 2080
• Rising temperatures in April–May affect wheat grain filling — early harvest forced
• Rice-wheat's geographic concentration (Punjab-Haryana) makes India's food security vulnerable to regional climate events
Policy Responses:
• BGREI (2010): Bringing rice/wheat productivity gains to eastern India — regional diversification
• DSR technology: Reduces water and labour cost for paddy
• PM Dhan-Dhaanya: Crop diversification in 100 lagging districts
• Shree Anna mission: Replacing rice-wheat with climate-resilient millets
• MSP reform needed: Equivalent procurement for pulses, millets, oilseeds
Conclusion: The rice-wheat system is a structural trap — profitable in the short run but ecologically bankrupt in the long run. The solution requires not just technology (DSR, climate-resilient varieties) but structural policy reform (MSP rationalisation, water pricing, crop diversification incentives). India must transition from the rice-wheat monoculture before the ecological debt becomes irreversible.
Why It Was the Backbone:
• Wheat production: 11 MT (1960) → 115.43 MT (2024–25 record)
• Rice production: 35 MT → 120.68 MT (Kharif 2024–25 record)
• PDS relies on rice-wheat procurement (45–70% of production); food security for 800+ million people
• Punjab-Haryana: 3–4 crops per year; highest productivity per hectare in India
Groundwater Crisis:
• Punjab: 80%+ blocks overexploited (CGWB 2023) — paddy cultivation is the primary cause
• Rice requires 1,200–1,500 litres of water per kg of grain produced
• Falling water tables → increasing energy cost for pumping → debt trap for farmers
• Direct Seeded Rice (DSR) technology reduces water use by 25–30%; Punjab offering ₹1,500/acre DSR incentive — insufficient to change behaviour at scale
Soil Health Degradation:
• Continuous rice-wheat depletes soil organic carbon, micronutrients (zinc, manganese, iron)
• Diminishing returns from HYV seeds — yield growth plateauing despite higher input use
• Stubble burning: 35 million tonnes of paddy straw burnt annually in Punjab-Haryana — destroys soil organic matter, releases CO₂, PM2.5; drives Delhi's winter air crisis
• Soil salinisation in low-lying paddy areas due to waterlogging
Climate Change Threat:
• Wheat yield projected to fall 19.3% by 2050 and 40% by 2080 without adaptation
• Rainfed rice yields may fall 20% by 2050 and 47% by 2080
• Rising temperatures in April–May affect wheat grain filling — early harvest forced
• Rice-wheat's geographic concentration (Punjab-Haryana) makes India's food security vulnerable to regional climate events
Policy Responses:
• BGREI (2010): Bringing rice/wheat productivity gains to eastern India — regional diversification
• DSR technology: Reduces water and labour cost for paddy
• PM Dhan-Dhaanya: Crop diversification in 100 lagging districts
• Shree Anna mission: Replacing rice-wheat with climate-resilient millets
• MSP reform needed: Equivalent procurement for pulses, millets, oilseeds
Conclusion: The rice-wheat system is a structural trap — profitable in the short run but ecologically bankrupt in the long run. The solution requires not just technology (DSR, climate-resilient varieties) but structural policy reform (MSP rationalisation, water pricing, crop diversification incentives). India must transition from the rice-wheat monoculture before the ecological debt becomes irreversible.
Mains MockGS III10 Marks
⏱ Suggested time: 10 minutes | 150 words
Q2. Distinguish between Conservation Agriculture and Organic Farming. How does Conservation Agriculture contribute to both climate adaptation and food security?
Zero tillagePermanent soil coverCrop diversificationCA ≠ OrganicClimate-Smart Agriculture
Introduction: Conservation Agriculture (CA) and Organic Farming are often confused as they share some principles. However, they differ fundamentally in their approach to tillage, chemical use, and primary objective.
Key Differences:
Tillage:
• CA: Zero tillage — seeds planted directly through surface crop residues; soil structure preserved
• Organic: Uses tillage/ploughing to remove weeds without inorganic fertilisers
Chemical use:
• CA: May initially use inorganic fertilisers and herbicides, especially in low-fertility soils; agrichemicals reduced over time
• Organic: Complete avoidance of synthetic chemicals; uses biological pest control and organic manures exclusively
Common ground: Both use crop rotation; protect soil organic matter; promote biodiversity
CA's Three Principles: (1) Permanent soil cover, (2) Minimum soil disturbance, (3) Plant species diversification
CA and Climate Adaptation:
• Zero tillage retains soil carbon → reduces greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture
• Permanent soil cover reduces evaporation → conserves moisture in drought conditions
• Crop diversification reduces vulnerability to climate-induced crop failure
• Intercropping and rotation reduce dependence on rainfall timing
• Reduces heat and drought stress on crops — critical as temperatures rise
CA and Food Security:
• Builds long-term soil health → sustained productivity without soil degradation
• Reduces cost of cultivation (less fuel for ploughing; less herbicide use over time)
• Enables multiple cropping — cropping intensity can reach 400–500% in rainfed systems
• Reduces post-harvest loss through better soil structure and drainage
Conclusion: Conservation Agriculture is a pragmatic middle path between intensive conventional farming and strict organic farming. It is rightly classified as Climate-Smart Agriculture — delivering on food security, climate adaptation, and environmental sustainability simultaneously.
Key Differences:
Tillage:
• CA: Zero tillage — seeds planted directly through surface crop residues; soil structure preserved
• Organic: Uses tillage/ploughing to remove weeds without inorganic fertilisers
Chemical use:
• CA: May initially use inorganic fertilisers and herbicides, especially in low-fertility soils; agrichemicals reduced over time
• Organic: Complete avoidance of synthetic chemicals; uses biological pest control and organic manures exclusively
Common ground: Both use crop rotation; protect soil organic matter; promote biodiversity
CA's Three Principles: (1) Permanent soil cover, (2) Minimum soil disturbance, (3) Plant species diversification
CA and Climate Adaptation:
• Zero tillage retains soil carbon → reduces greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture
• Permanent soil cover reduces evaporation → conserves moisture in drought conditions
• Crop diversification reduces vulnerability to climate-induced crop failure
• Intercropping and rotation reduce dependence on rainfall timing
• Reduces heat and drought stress on crops — critical as temperatures rise
CA and Food Security:
• Builds long-term soil health → sustained productivity without soil degradation
• Reduces cost of cultivation (less fuel for ploughing; less herbicide use over time)
• Enables multiple cropping — cropping intensity can reach 400–500% in rainfed systems
• Reduces post-harvest loss through better soil structure and drainage
Conclusion: Conservation Agriculture is a pragmatic middle path between intensive conventional farming and strict organic farming. It is rightly classified as Climate-Smart Agriculture — delivering on food security, climate adaptation, and environmental sustainability simultaneously.
Mains MockGS III10 Marks
⏱ Suggested time: 10 minutes | 150 words
Q3. "MSP policy, while protecting farmer income, has inadvertently become the biggest barrier to crop diversification in India." Critically examine with examples.
23 MSP crops; 2–3 effectiveMillet procurement 1–15%Rice-wheat 45–70%Water subsidiesShree Anna
Introduction: Minimum Support Price (MSP) is India's primary instrument of agricultural income protection. Yet by concentrating effective procurement on just 2–3 crops (rice, wheat, sugarcane), MSP has unintentionally created the very monoculture it sought to stabilise against — at enormous ecological and nutritional cost.
How MSP Drives Monoculture:
• MSP is announced for 23 crops but effective procurement exists for only rice, wheat, and sugarcane
• Wheat and rice procurement: 45–70% of total production (strong price signal to farmers)
• Pearl millet procurement: only 1%; Sorghum: 3%; Finger millet: 15% (effectively zero signal)
• Result: intercrop price disparities lead to continuous shift of acreage from millets to rice/wheat wherever irrigation allows
• Farmers face rational choice: grow MSP-backed rice/wheat with guaranteed offtake, or grow millets/pulses with no assured market and price crash risk
Ecological Consequences:
• Punjab-Haryana: paddy monoculture → 80%+ groundwater blocks overexploited
• Coarse cereal area: from 28.48% (1970–71) → 11.7% (2020–21)
• Per capita millet consumption: 32.9 kg → 3.87 kg (1962–2022)
• Soil degradation from continuous rice-wheat with chemical inputs
Nutritional Consequences:
• Shift from nutrient-dense millets to calorie-rich rice/wheat worsened India's hidden hunger
• Rice delivers least iron, zinc, protein among cereals; millets deliver most
Way Forward:
• Price deficiency payments (not physical procurement) for millets and pulses — guarantee price without requiring government stocking
• Shree Anna mission: 2023 International Year of Millets — demand-side push through PDS inclusion, school meals
• PM Dhan-Dhaanya: District-level diversification plans with assured buyback for alternative crops
• Water pricing: Remove perverse subsidy making paddy in Punjab artificially profitable
Conclusion: MSP reform is the central political challenge of Indian agricultural diversification. Without equalising effective price support across crops, all other interventions — technology, extension, ZBNF — will be insufficient to break the rice-wheat monoculture trap.
How MSP Drives Monoculture:
• MSP is announced for 23 crops but effective procurement exists for only rice, wheat, and sugarcane
• Wheat and rice procurement: 45–70% of total production (strong price signal to farmers)
• Pearl millet procurement: only 1%; Sorghum: 3%; Finger millet: 15% (effectively zero signal)
• Result: intercrop price disparities lead to continuous shift of acreage from millets to rice/wheat wherever irrigation allows
• Farmers face rational choice: grow MSP-backed rice/wheat with guaranteed offtake, or grow millets/pulses with no assured market and price crash risk
Ecological Consequences:
• Punjab-Haryana: paddy monoculture → 80%+ groundwater blocks overexploited
• Coarse cereal area: from 28.48% (1970–71) → 11.7% (2020–21)
• Per capita millet consumption: 32.9 kg → 3.87 kg (1962–2022)
• Soil degradation from continuous rice-wheat with chemical inputs
Nutritional Consequences:
• Shift from nutrient-dense millets to calorie-rich rice/wheat worsened India's hidden hunger
• Rice delivers least iron, zinc, protein among cereals; millets deliver most
Way Forward:
• Price deficiency payments (not physical procurement) for millets and pulses — guarantee price without requiring government stocking
• Shree Anna mission: 2023 International Year of Millets — demand-side push through PDS inclusion, school meals
• PM Dhan-Dhaanya: District-level diversification plans with assured buyback for alternative crops
• Water pricing: Remove perverse subsidy making paddy in Punjab artificially profitable
Conclusion: MSP reform is the central political challenge of Indian agricultural diversification. Without equalising effective price support across crops, all other interventions — technology, extension, ZBNF — will be insufficient to break the rice-wheat monoculture trap.
11. Practice MCQs — Cropping Pattern (5 Questions)
Click your answer. Green = correct; Red = wrong. Explanation appears immediately.
Q 1
India's cropping intensity increased from 111% in 1950–51 to 151% in 2019–20. What does a cropping intensity of 151% mean?
Cropping Intensity = (Total Cropped Area / Net Sown Area) × 100. A value of 151% (2019–20; or 155.9% as per 2022–23 Land Use Statistics) means the total area sown with crops equals 151–155.9% of the net sown area — implying roughly 51–56% of the net sown area is cropped more than once in a year. Systematic intercropping has the potential to raise this to 400–500% even in rainfed areas. India's net sown area is relatively stable; the increase in CI reflects more multiple/sequential cropping rather than expansion of agricultural land.
Q 2
Consider the following statements about changes in India's cropping pattern since Independence:
1. Area under coarse cereals (jowar, bajra, millets) increased from 28.48% to over 35% of gross cropped area.
2. Foodgrain area declined from over 80% to about 63.81% of gross cropped area.
3. Rice and sugarcane together consume more than 60% of water available for irrigation.
4. Area under oilseeds increased from 9.85% to 13.52% of gross cropped area.
Which of the above statements are correct?
1. Area under coarse cereals (jowar, bajra, millets) increased from 28.48% to over 35% of gross cropped area.
2. Foodgrain area declined from over 80% to about 63.81% of gross cropped area.
3. Rice and sugarcane together consume more than 60% of water available for irrigation.
4. Area under oilseeds increased from 9.85% to 13.52% of gross cropped area.
Which of the above statements are correct?
Statements 2, 3, and 4 are correct. Statement 1 is WRONG — coarse cereal area has declined dramatically from 28.48% (1970–71) to 11.7% (2020–21). This is one of India's most significant agricultural policy failures — driven by MSP-driven rice-wheat dominance, spread of irrigation, and shift in consumption patterns. Statements 2 (foodgrain area decline), 3 (rice + sugarcane = 60%+ of irrigation water), and 4 (oilseeds area increase) are all correct. The coarse cereal decline is a high-frequency UPSC trap — always remember it declined, NOT increased.
Q 3
The "Bringing Green Revolution to Eastern India (BGREI)" scheme was launched to address which specific problem?
BGREI (Bringing Green Revolution to Eastern India) is a sub-scheme of Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY), launched in 2010–11 specifically to address constraints limiting productivity of rice-based cropping systems in 7 eastern states: Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Odisha, Eastern Uttar Pradesh (Purvanchal), and West Bengal. Eastern India was largely bypassed by the original Green Revolution which concentrated its benefits in Punjab-Haryana-western UP. BGREI focuses on: block/cluster development, improved production technology, asset building, water harvesting, seed production, and post-harvest management. It is essentially the "second Green Revolution" for eastern India.
Q 4
Which of the following correctly identifies the key difference between Conservation Agriculture (CA) and Organic Farming?
The critical distinction: Organic farmers use tillage/ploughing to remove weeds — they avoid inorganic fertilisers but DO plough the soil. Conservation Agriculture farmers do NOT till — they maintain permanent soil cover and plant seeds through residues. CA farmers may initially use inorganic fertilisers to manage weeds, especially in low-fertility soils, and gradually phase them out. Both use crop rotation and protect soil organic matter — but their approach to tillage is fundamentally opposite. CA systems can be considered Climate-Smart Agriculture; not all organic farming qualifies as CA.
Q 5
In the context of Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF), which of the following pairs is correctly matched?
Option (b) is correct:
• Bijamrita = Seed treatment formulation prepared using cow dung and cow urine from native (Desi/Bos-indicus) cow species — protects seeds from fungal and soil-borne diseases before sowing
• Jiwamrita = Bio-fertiliser applied to soil — made from local cow dung and cow urine; neem leaves/pulp, tobacco, green chillies added for insect and pest management
• Mulching = conserving soil moisture and improving soil health
• Waaphasa = utilising soil moisture; ensuring favourable microclimate in soil
Together these four form the "Four Pillars/Wheels of ZBNF." The key UPSC fact: ZBNF uses Desi/Bos-indicus cow dung (NOT European breeds).
• Bijamrita = Seed treatment formulation prepared using cow dung and cow urine from native (Desi/Bos-indicus) cow species — protects seeds from fungal and soil-borne diseases before sowing
• Jiwamrita = Bio-fertiliser applied to soil — made from local cow dung and cow urine; neem leaves/pulp, tobacco, green chillies added for insect and pest management
• Mulching = conserving soil moisture and improving soil health
• Waaphasa = utilising soil moisture; ensuring favourable microclimate in soil
Together these four form the "Four Pillars/Wheels of ZBNF." The key UPSC fact: ZBNF uses Desi/Bos-indicus cow dung (NOT European breeds).
0 / 5
0% correct
