Irrigation Systems in India
Types · Classification · Sources · Challenges · Government Schemes · Current Affairs · PYQs · MCQs
1. Irrigation — Overview & Need
Irrigation is the artificial and controlled application of water to agricultural fields to support crop growth when rainfall is insufficient or irregular. It has been pivotal in India since ancient times — from Indus Valley tank systems to modern canal networks.
2. Types of Irrigation Systems
Irrigation systems are categorised by technique of water distribution. The three main categories are Surface Irrigation (flood), Localised Irrigation (micro/drip), and Sub-Irrigation (seepage). Within these, specific methods have distinct characteristics:
🌊 Surface Irrigation
Water moves under gravity over the land surface — also called Flood Irrigation. Three types:
- Basin Irrigation: Small levelled areas surrounded by earth banks; water infiltrates then diverts
- Furrow Irrigation: Small parallel channels along field length; water flows under gravity. Best for cotton, sugarcane, potatoes
- Border Strip (Check/Bay) Irrigation: Field divided into strips; combination of basin and furrow. Best for wheat, leafy vegetables, fodder
💧 Drip Irrigation (Trickle)
Water delivered drop by drop directly to root zone at low pressure through piped network — also called Trickle Irrigation or Low Flow/Low Volume/Micro Irrigation. Key concept: Fertigation — fertiliser delivery through drip system.
- Rate: 2–20 litres per hour per emitter
- Best for: orchards, vegetables, plantation crops, grapes, pomegranate
- Minimises weed growth; reduces evaporation and runoff
- Israel pioneered; Gujarat, Maharashtra lead in India
🚿 Sprinkler Irrigation
High-pressure sprinklers mounted at permanent places spray water overhead — also called Overhead Irrigation. Water distributed in low pressure through piped network resembling rainfall.
- Best for: uneven terrain, shallow soils, vegetables, tea, coffee
- Suitable for sandy soils with low water-holding capacity
- Challenges: expensive initial infrastructure; wasteful if wind present
- Center Pivot Irrigation = rotating sprinkler system for large fields
🌍 Sub-Irrigation (Seepage)
Water supplied below the soil surface through pipes or porous tubes — also called Seepage Irrigation. Used in areas with high water table. Roots absorb moisture directly from below.
- Reduces evaporation losses significantly
- Prevents waterlogging and salinity in high-water-table regions
- Best for: sugarcane, orchard crops in alluvial plains
🔩 Well & Tube Well Irrigation
Groundwater extracted through shallow wells (dug wells) or deep mechanical tube wells. Tube wells can irrigate up to 400 hectares.
- Over 50 lakh tube wells operate across India
- Key states: UP, Punjab, Haryana (Indo-Gangetic plain)
- Tube wells: 46% of India's irrigated area; wells: 16%
- Groundwater contributes ~63% of total irrigation
- Concern: overexploitation in Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, UP
🏞️ Canal Irrigation
Water transported from rivers through canals. Two types:
- Perennial Canals: Continuous supply using barrages/weirs; dug from perennial rivers
- Inundation Canals: Operate only during flood season; no diversion works
- Canal share: ~24% of India's irrigated area
- Prominent in northern plains (Punjab, Haryana, UP, Rajasthan)
- Challenges: seepage losses (30–40%), tail-end water inequity
🏊 Tank Irrigation
Water stored in tanks formed by constructing bunds/earthen dams across streams and natural depressions.
- Tanks share: ~3% of India's irrigated area
- Common in: Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha
- Traditional system: ancient tanks in South India (Kalyani, Kere)
- Limitation: dry out in summer months; no guaranteed supply
- About 5 lakh tanks in India; many in disrepair
🌄 Inundation / Lift Irrigation
Inundation: Land flooded by river water seasonally — excess then drained off. Uses flood water, limited to a few days per year.
Lift Irrigation: Water at lower level lifted to fields by pumps or mechanical devices. Used extensively at Indira Gandhi Canal, Rajasthan.
- Lift irrigation: Flow Irrigation (direct from river or via storage) vs Lift (pumped up)
Remember: "Some Drops Spray Slowly, Canals Wind Through"
3. Classification of Irrigation Schemes
📐 Based on Sources
Five main source-based categories of irrigation schemes in India:
- Wells — dug wells (shallow groundwater)
- Tube Wells — deep/shallow bore wells with pumps
- Canals — river diversion through canal networks
- Tanks — surface storage from streams
- Other Sources — springs, khuls (hill channels), dongs
📏 Based on Magnitude (CCA)
Irrigation projects classified by Culturable Command Area (CCA):
- Major Projects: CCA > 10,000 hectares — mostly surface water
- Medium Projects: 2,000 ha < CCA < 10,000 ha — surface water
- Minor Projects: CCA ≤ 2,000 hectares — surface AND groundwater; account for ~65% of total irrigation potential utilised
| Basis | Category | Description / Key Details |
|---|---|---|
| Technique of Distribution | Surface Irrigation | Water moves by gravity. Also called Flood Irrigation. Includes Basin, Furrow, Border Strip methods. |
| Localised Irrigation | Low pressure piped network to root zone. Also called Low Flow / Micro Irrigation. Includes Drip and Sprinkler. | |
| Sub-Irrigation | Below-surface supply through porous pipes. Also called Seepage Irrigation. Used in high water-table areas. | |
| Duration of Application | Inundation / Flooding Type | Land flooded seasonally by flood water of rivers. Limited to a few days/year; no perennial supply. |
| Perennial Irrigation | Regular water supply as per crop requirements. Source can be surface or groundwater. Year-round availability. | |
| Way Water is Applied | Flow Irrigation | Water conveyed to irrigated land. Subdivided into Direct (from river without storage) and Reservoir/Tank (stored water). |
| Lift Irrigation | Water available at lower level; lifted by pumps. Example: Indira Gandhi Canal area in Rajasthan. |
4. Sources of Irrigation in India — Share & Distribution
| Source | Share of Irrigated Area | Key States / Features | Trend |
|---|---|---|---|
| Tube Wells | 46% (largest) | UP, Punjab, Haryana, Bihar, Gujarat | 📈 Rising rapidly — 50+ lakh tube wells |
| Other Wells | 16% | Rajasthan, Gujarat, MP, Karnataka | 📉 Declining — being replaced by tube wells |
| Canals | 24% | Punjab, Haryana, UP, Rajasthan, AP, Odisha | 📉 Declining share — seepage losses; poor maintenance |
| Tanks | 3% | Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha | 📉 Sharp decline — neglect; silting; encroachment |
| Other Sources | 11% | Springs (J&K, HP); Khuls; Dongs (Arunachal); Kuhls (Himachal) | Relatively stable; traditional systems |
🌾 Crop-wise Irrigation Coverage
- Wheat: >90% of area irrigated — fully dependent
- Sugarcane: >95% irrigated — most water-intensive
- Rice: ~60% irrigated (balance rainfed)
- Cotton: ~35% irrigated
- Pulses: ~15% irrigated — largely rainfed
- Oilseeds: ~28% irrigated — mostly rainfed
🗺️ Regional Distribution
- Best irrigated: Punjab (98%+ NSA irrigated), Haryana, UP, Rajasthan, AP, Tamil Nadu
- Canal dominant: Punjab, Haryana, western UP, Rajasthan (Indira Gandhi Canal)
- Well/tubewell dominant: UP, Bihar, Gujarat, Rajasthan
- Tank dominant: Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, AP, Odisha
- Poorly irrigated: Assam, Bihar (eastern), Jharkhand, Odisha, NE states
5. Irrigation Efficiency & Virtual Water
📊 Irrigation Efficiency
Irrigation efficiency = ratio of water stored in the soil root zone to water applied by the irrigation system. 100% efficiency is practically non-existent because:
- Cannot accurately estimate quantity of water needed to recharge the soil root zone
- Lack of real-time information on actual soil depth of active roots
💧 Virtual Water (Concept)
Concept introduced by Prof. John Anthony Allan (London) in the early 1990s — also referred to as "embedded water" or "hidden water".
- Definition: Water required for the production of agricultural commodities — the water "embedded" in products
- Water Trade: When goods are exchanged, so is virtual water — a country importing 1 tonne of wheat saves ~1,300 cubic metres of indigenous water
- Significance: Water-scarce nations can "import" virtual water by importing water-intensive crops rather than growing them domestically
- India concern: India exports rice and wheat — water-intensive crops — effectively exporting virtual water from already water-stressed regions
6. Challenges in India's Irrigation Systems
7. Government Schemes & Projects — Irrigation
💧 Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana (PMKSY)
"More Crop Per Drop" — launched 2015–16 by merging AIBP, IWMP, and On-Farm Water Management. Two key components: (1) Har Khet Ko Pani — ensuring irrigation access to every farm field through new irrigation sources and distribution networks; (2) Per Drop More Crop — promoting micro-irrigation (drip and sprinkler) to improve water use efficiency. Also includes watershed development and groundwater development components. Budget: significant multi-year allocation; 99 prioritised irrigation projects under AIBP component.
🌱 Micro Irrigation Fund (MIF)
Established under NABARD with an initial corpus of ₹5,000 crore to promote drip and sprinkler irrigation across India. States can borrow from MIF to fund micro-irrigation beyond PMKSY allocation. The fund enables states to expand micro-irrigation to additional land above the ceiling defined under PMKSY, addressing the significant gap in coverage especially in small landholding states.
🌊 Atal Bhujal Yojana (Atal Jal)
Focuses on sustainable groundwater management in 7 water-stressed states — Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh — through community participation and demand-side management. The scheme promotes Gram Panchayat-level water security plans, enables data-driven groundwater management, and encourages change in cropping patterns in overexploited blocks. Implemented with World Bank support (₹6,000 crore, 50% World Bank loan).
☀️ PM KUSUM Scheme (Kisan Urja Suraksha evam Utthaan Mahabhiyan)
Promotes solar-powered irrigation pumps for farmers — reduces energy costs and enables sale of surplus electricity to the grid. Three components: (A) 10,000 MW solar energy plants on barren/fallow land; (B) Stand-alone solar pumps (20 lakh); (C) Grid-connected solar pumps (15 lakh). Target: solarise 35 lakh agriculture pumps by 2026. Addresses the energy-water nexus — solar power reduces over-reliance on subsidised grid electricity, potentially reducing groundwater overextraction.
🏞️ Indira Gandhi Canal Project (Rajasthan Canal)
One of India's largest irrigation projects — a 649 km canal in Rajasthan, fed by the Harike Barrage on the Sutlej-Beas rivers. Irrigates over 1.8 million hectares across Ganganagar, Bikaner, Jaisalmer, Barmer districts — transforming Thar Desert into productive agricultural land. Uses Lift Irrigation extensively where terrain requires pumping. Transformed a desert into a granary — demonstration of irrigation's transformative power. However, causes waterlogging in some areas due to over-irrigation.
🏔️ Sardar Sarovar Project (Narmada)
Part of the Narmada Valley Development Project — the Sardar Sarovar Dam on the Narmada river (Gujarat) has an approved irrigation potential of 1.9 million hectares (latest operational figure: ~20.38 lakh ha irrigated as of 2022–23) and supplies drinking water to over 3 crore people in Gujarat and Rajasthan. Also generates 1,450 MW hydropower. One of India's most contested development projects — the Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA) raised concerns about displacement of tribal communities (3 lakh+ displaced). Supreme Court permitted the project after extensive litigation. The entire Narmada Valley Project covers 30 large, 135 medium, and 3,000 small dams.
🌊 Krishna-Godavari Basin Projects
The Krishna and Godavari river basins support over 5 million hectares of irrigation in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana through a network of dams and canals. Key projects: Nagarjuna Sagar Dam (Krishna), Srisailam Dam (Krishna-Tungabhadra), Polavaram Project (Godavari — under construction, national project status). The Polavaram Irrigation Project, once complete, will irrigate 4.36 lakh hectares and provide drinking water to 540 villages. Inter-state water disputes on both rivers (AP vs Telangana on Krishna; AP-Odisha-Chhattisgarh on Godavari) are ongoing.
8. Current Affairs 2024–25 — Irrigation
India's Micro-Irrigation Coverage: 11 M ha — Target 10 M ha Exceeded
India's micro-irrigation coverage (drip + sprinkler) exceeded 11 million hectares — surpassing the government's earlier target of 10 million hectares under PMKSY "Per Drop More Crop". Gujarat leads with 30%+ of national drip irrigation area. The National Mission on Micro Irrigation (NMMI) is now merged under PMKSY-PDMC. Government is targeting 26 million hectares of micro-irrigation coverage by 2026-27 through PMKSY, state schemes, and the NABARD Micro Irrigation Fund.
Punjab Groundwater Crisis — 80%+ Blocks Overexploited; DSR Push
The Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) 2023 assessment found over 80% of Punjab's assessment units in "overexploited" or "critical" categories — the highest in India. The state has been offering ₹1,500/acre incentive for Direct Seeded Rice (DSR) technology adoption to reduce water use by 25–30%. However, free electricity continues to drive over-extraction. The Punjab government is also considering mandatory crop diversification in the most water-stressed districts — moving from paddy to maize, pulses, and oilseeds.
PM KUSUM — 35 Lakh Solar Pumps Target; Revised Scheme Guidelines 2024
The PM KUSUM scheme was revised in 2024 with enhanced subsidy (60% central + state subsidy for small/marginal farmers) and expanded Component C coverage for grid-connected solar pumps. The scheme is targeting solarisation of 35 lakh agriculture pumps — reducing dependence on state electricity boards and potentially curbing groundwater overextraction. States like Rajasthan, MP, and UP have made the most progress. The scheme also allows farmers to earn income by selling surplus solar power to DISCOMs at pre-determined tariffs.
PMKSY Extension to 2026 — 99 Irrigation Projects Fast-Tracked
The Cabinet approved extension of PMKSY with an outlay of ₹93,068 crore for 2021–26. All 99 prioritised irrigation projects under the AIBP (Accelerated Irrigation Benefits Programme) component are being fast-tracked for completion — these projects have been incomplete for decades. Once complete, they will create an additional 76.03 lakh hectares of irrigation potential. The PMKSY "Har Khet Ko Pani" component is also expanding coverage of irrigation networks in underserved districts.
Digital Agriculture & Precision Irrigation — FASAL + Smart Irrigation
The Digital Agriculture Mission (₹2,817 crore) is integrating irrigation with precision agriculture. FASAL (Forecasting Agricultural output using Space, Agro-meteorology and Land-based observations) provides crop water requirement advisory based on satellite imagery and soil moisture data. Smart irrigation controllers that use IoT sensors and weather forecasting are being piloted under the National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA). The AgriStack farmer digital ID is being linked to irrigation infrastructure for targeted water delivery.
Waterlogging & Salinity — 6.73 M ha Affected; ICAR Initiative
India's Waterlogged and Saline Lands Management Programme (Ministry of Agriculture) estimated 6.73 million hectares affected by waterlogging and 5.5 million hectares by soil salinity — predominantly in canal-irrigated areas of UP, Rajasthan, Punjab, and Haryana. ICAR's Central Soil Salinity Research Institute (CSSRI) is developing salt-tolerant crop varieties and reclamation technologies. The National Watershed Development Programme is targeting the integration of drainage infrastructure with irrigation projects — a systemic gap since most Indian irrigation projects have no drainage component.
9. Prelims PYQs — Irrigation
1. Fertigation can be carried out through drip irrigation systems.
2. Sprinkler irrigation is more suitable than drip irrigation for closely-spaced crops.
3. Drip irrigation delivers water directly to plant roots through emitters.
- (a) 1 and 2 only
- (b) 3 only
- (c) 1 and 3 only
- ✓ (d) 1, 2 and 3
- (a) Underground water reserves that are not currently accessible but are virtually available
- (b) Digital models used to track and manage water resources in arid regions
- ✓ (c) The water required (embedded) for the production of agricultural commodities — saved when a country imports goods instead of growing them domestically
- (d) Treated wastewater that can virtually substitute for freshwater in industrial processes
- (a) Solar-powered irrigation pumps for marginal farmers
- (b) Ensuring irrigation coverage to every farm field in India
- ✓ (c) Sustainable groundwater management through community participation in water-stressed states
- (d) Construction of micro-irrigation networks in drought-prone districts
1. Tube wells account for the largest share of India's irrigated area.
2. Canal irrigation has been expanding in recent decades.
3. Tank irrigation is primarily concentrated in peninsular India.
Which of the above statements are correct?
- (a) 2 and 3 only
- ✓ (b) 1 and 3 only
- (c) 1, 2 and 3
- (d) 1 only
- (a) "Green Revolution in Irrigation" and "Blue Revolution in Fisheries"
- (b) "Jal Shakti Abhiyan" and "Atal Bhujal Yojana"
- ✓ (c) "Har Khet Ko Pani" (irrigation access to every farm) and "Per Drop More Crop" (micro-irrigation for water efficiency)
- (d) "Canal Lining Mission" and "Solar Pump Scheme"
10. Mains PYQs — Irrigation
How Irrigation Created the Paradox:
• Groundwater depletion: India extracts ~250 billion cubic metres of groundwater/year — the world's largest. Punjab: 80%+ blocks overexploited. Water table falling 0.5–1 m/year. Direct consequence: rising energy costs (deeper pumping), crop failure risk, permanent aquifer damage
• Waterlogging: Over-irrigation in canal command areas raises the water table above the root zone. India has ~6–7 million ha waterlogged. Punjab-Haryana flat terrain especially vulnerable. Waterlogged roots cannot breathe — crop yields fall even with water abundance
• Soil salinity: In arid/semi-arid irrigated areas (Rajasthan, UP), evaporation leaves behind salts. India has ~5.5 million ha saline/alkaline soils. "Reh," "usar," "kallar" (local terms) render land uncultivable. Salt-tolerant varieties partially address this but don't solve the structural problem
Way Forward:
• Drip and sprinkler irrigation (PMKSY "Per Drop More Crop")
• Groundwater regulation — Atal Bhujal Yojana community management
• Drainage infrastructure alongside irrigation (currently absent in most projects)
• DSR (Direct Seeded Rice) technology for Punjab — reduces water use by 25–30%
• Crop diversification away from water-intensive paddy in overexploited zones
Conclusion: India must transition from quantity-focused irrigation to efficiency-driven irrigation — or risk turning its agricultural heartland into degraded wasteland within decades.
Significance:
• Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha: tank irrigation supported rice cultivation for millennia
• Ecological functions: groundwater recharge, biodiversity habitat (wetlands), flood moderation, fisheries
• Community commons: traditional maintenance through "tank committee" systems
• 5 lakh tanks in India — Karnataka alone has ~36,000 tanks
• Independence from river flow — suitable for South India's non-perennial rivers
Reasons for Decline (18% → 3%):
• Post-Independence focus on major and medium dams — tanks seen as outdated
• Green Revolution shifted focus to tube well irrigation — private, on-demand
• Encroachment on tank beds and catchments (urbanisation)
• Breakdown of traditional maintenance institutions — government takeover without community ownership
• Siltation from deforested catchments
• Canal irrigation expansion displaced tank dependency in some areas
Revival Measures:
• MGNREGS desilting works — community-driven tank revival (already happening)
• Restoring tank catchment vegetation
• Legal protection of tank beds and sluice channels
• Reviving traditional water user associations (Tank Panchayats)
• Integration with watershed development programmes
• Smart sluice gates for precision release
Conclusion: Tank revival is not just an irrigation issue — it is an ecological, social, and cultural imperative for peninsular India's water security.
11. Mock Mains Questions — Irrigation
Scale of the Problem:
• Irrigation efficiency: Surface/flood = 30–50%; Sprinkler = 70–85%; Drip = 90–95%
• India's dominant method remains surface/flood irrigation — hence overall system efficiency ~35–40%
• With only 11 M ha under micro-irrigation vs 67.2 M ha total irrigated area — micro-irrigation covers <20%
Structural Reasons for Low Efficiency:
(1) Canal infrastructure decay: India's ~160,000 km canal network is poorly lined — only 30% lined. Seepage accounts for 30–40% losses. Tail-end farmers receive 20–30% of head-end water allocation
(2) Perverse incentives: Free/subsidised electricity for agriculture (Punjab, Haryana) gives zero incentive to conserve groundwater; tube wells extract as much as farmers want at near-zero marginal cost
(3) Flood irrigation dominance: 70%+ of irrigated area uses surface/flood methods — simple, low-cost, but deeply inefficient. Transitioning requires capital investment and knowledge
(4) Fragmented landholdings: Average farm size ~1.1 ha — drip systems require minimum scale and upfront cost; small farmers cannot afford individually
(5) No drainage infrastructure: Most Indian irrigation projects have NO drainage component — leading to waterlogging and salinity when efficiency is already low
(6) Institutional weakness: Water User Associations (WUAs) mandated under irrigation reforms are poorly functional; farmers don't pay for water (no volumetric pricing) — no conservation incentive
(7) Eastern India deficit: Eastern India (Bihar, Assam, WB, Odisha, JH) with abundant water remains underirrigated — while western India with scarce water over-irrigates. CIP-IPU gap is 30–40%
Way Forward:
• PMKSY "Per Drop More Crop": Scale micro-irrigation to 26 M ha by 2026–27; Micro Irrigation Fund (₹5,000 crore, NABARD) for states
• Canal lining: Prioritise lining of major canals — reduces seepage by 30–50%; PMKSY AIBP component
• Water pricing reform: Introduce volumetric water pricing for large/commercial farmers; maintain subsidies for marginal farmers
• PM KUSUM: Solar pumps reduce free-power-driven over-extraction from groundwater
• Atal Bhujal Yojana: Community-based groundwater management in 7 states
• Drainage mandate: Require all new irrigation projects to have integrated drainage — prevent waterlogging
• Precision irrigation: IoT-based soil moisture sensors, FASAL advisory, smart irrigation controllers
Conclusion: India's irrigation paradox — vast scale, low efficiency — is a governance and incentive failure as much as a technology failure. Without pricing reform, canal maintenance, and micro-irrigation scale-up, India risks a water-food security crisis of its own making.
Energy Security Dimension:
• India has 30+ million agriculture pump sets — consuming ~18–20% of total electricity
• Free power to farmers costs states ~₹60,000–70,000 crore/year in subsidies
• Irregular and low-quality power supply forces diesel pump use (expensive, polluting)
• PM KUSUM: 35 lakh pumps solarised (Components B + C); 10 GW barren-land solar (Component A)
• Grid-connected solar pumps earn farmers income by selling surplus power — "prosumer" farmers
• Reduces diesel use → reduces input cost → improves farmer income
Water Security Dimension:
• Under subsidised/free electricity: marginal cost of pumping groundwater ≈ zero → farmers extract maximally
• Solar pump converts energy from free (subsidy-based) to "owned" (farmer's own asset) → farmer now has incentive to conserve (more pumping = more wear on own equipment)
• Without grid electricity subsidy, solar pump owners self-regulate extraction
• In theory, volumetric water metering alongside solar pumps could create direct incentive to conserve
• In states where solar income from grid sale is significant, farmers may conserve water to prioritise power generation
Challenges:
• Without metering, cheap solar energy may paradoxically increase extraction
• Grid-connected components require robust DISCOM infrastructure
• Land acquisition for Component A (barren land solar) faces local resistance
• State adoption varies widely
Conclusion: PM KUSUM is a well-designed scheme that recognises the energy-water nexus. Its success in water conservation depends on complementary groundwater regulation — it is a necessary but not sufficient solution.
Why the Shift Occurred — Agricultural Progress:
• Tube wells are farmer-owned, private, on-demand — no bureaucratic dependency on canal schedule
• Groundwater is more reliable than canals (no head-end/tail-end inequity)
• Green Revolution's HYV seeds needed reliable water supply → tube wells provided it
• Canal expansion was expensive, slow, and state-managed — poor maintenance reduced reliability
• Result: massive food production gains — wheat: 11 MT → 115 MT; rice: 35 MT → 120 MT
The Ecological Crisis — Unacknowledged:
• India extracts 250 billion m³ groundwater/year — largest in the world
• Punjab: 80%+ overexploited blocks; water table falling 0.5–1 m/year
• Haryana, Rajasthan, UP: similar declining trends
• Aquifer depletion is irreversible in some cases (hard rock aquifers of Deccan plateau)
• As water table falls: pumping costs rise → marginal farmers abandon irrigation → food insecurity
• Sea water intrusion into coastal aquifers (Gujarat, Tamil Nadu)
• Free electricity (the driver of over-extraction) costs states ₹60,000–70,000 crore/year
What Should Have Been Done:
• Canal lining + maintenance alongside tube well expansion
• Regulated groundwater extraction from the start (most states have no groundwater law)
• Volumetric water pricing instead of free power
• Watershed development to recharge aquifers in tandem with extraction
Conclusion: The canal-to-tube well shift was a rational response to canal system failures — but executed without safeguards. India now needs an equally dramatic shift: from unregulated extraction to scientifically managed, community-governed groundwater use — or the "progress" will be reversed by the ecological debt it incurred.
12. Practice MCQs — Irrigation (5 Questions)
Click your answer. Green = correct; Red = wrong. Explanation appears immediately.
1. It is also known as Trickle Irrigation.
2. It delivers water at 2–20 litres per hour through emitters at root level.
3. Fertigation is the practice of delivering fertilisers through the drip system.
4. It is the most suitable method for closely-spaced cereal crops like wheat.
How many of the above statements are correct?
