Humans, like most mammals, live on land. Land has many forms and features; its appearance changes a great deal from one region to another. A journey by road from Chhota Nagpur in Jharkhand to Prayagraj in Uttar Pradesh to Almora in Uttarakhand will take you through three very different landscapes — three major landforms.

Fig. 3.1 — This drawing illustrates three landforms: mountains in the background (two snow-capped), a plateau on the left, and a plain in the foreground, with a river emerging from the mountains. (Source: NCERT)

Mountains are landforms that are much higher than the surrounding landscape. They are recognised by a broad base, steep slopes, and a narrow summit. Some mountains are covered with snow depending on altitude.

Mountains with tall and sharp peaks like the Himalayas are relatively 'young' — formed recently in Earth's history (still millions of years ago). Shorter, more rounded mountains like the Aravalli Range are much older, rounded by erosion. Some mountains like the Himalayas are still growing in height due to continued upliftment. Most mountains are grouped in mountain ranges such as the Himalayas (Asia), Alps (Europe), and Andes (South America) — some stretching for thousands of kilometres.

NCERT green sidebar definitions: Montane forest (conifer forests in mountains), Moss (cushion-like green plant), Lichen (clings to rocks/walls/trees) — key mountain vegetation terms frequently asked in exams. (Source: NCERT)

Mountain Fauna (listed in NCERT): Golden eagle, Peregrine falcon, Canadian lynx, Snow leopard, Ibex, Himalayan tahr, Mountain hare, Yak, Grey fox, Black bear, Leopard. These animals inhabit deep forests, flowing rivers, lakes, grasslands and caves in the mountains.

Fig. 3.5 — Terrace farming in north India. Steps cut into mountain slopes create flat surfaces for cultivation — a vital adaptation for mountain agriculture. (Source: NCERT)

Mountain terrain is usually rugged with steep slopes, so regular farming can only be practised in some valleys.

Challenges of mountain life (Fig. 3.6): Flash floods, landslides, avalanches, heavy snowfall, cold weather, cloudbursts, and uncontrolled tourism (human-made challenge).

Don't Miss Out — Bachendri Pal (first Indian woman on Everest, 1984) and Arunima Sinha (Everest 2013 with one leg, climbed highest peak on every continent). (Source: NCERT)

A plateau is a landform that rises up from the surrounding land and has a more or less flat surface. Some of its sides are often steep slopes. Like mountains, plateaus can be young or old. Height varies from a few hundred metres to several thousand metres.

Don't Miss Out — Tibetan Plateau: average altitude 4,500 m, 'Roof of the World', 2,500 km east-to-west. Deccan Plateau: one of the world's oldest, formed by volcanic activity. (Source: NCERT)

Fig. 3.7 — The Nohkalikai Falls emerging from the Cherrapunji Plateau (Meghalaya), dropping 340 metres — the tallest plunge waterfall in India. (Source: NCERT)

Plateaus are home to many spectacular waterfalls:

Plains are landforms that have an extensive flat or gently undulating surface. They do not have any large hills or deep valleys. Generally not more than 300 metres above sea level.

Fig. 3.8 — World map showing major mountain ranges (orange), plateaus (brown) and river plains (green). Key features: Rocky, Andes, Ural, Himalaya, Atlas ranges; Tibetan, Mongolian, Patagonian, East African plateaus; Mississippi, Amazon, Nile, Ganga-Brahmaputra, Yangtze, Indus river plains. (Source: NCERT)

Thousands of years ago, the first civilisations developed around rivers in fertile plains (Indus, Nile, Mesopotamia, Yellow River). Even today, a large part of the world's population lives in plains.

Irrigation shift: Traditional agriculture was mostly rainfed. In recent decades, it shifted to irrigation via canals or groundwater pumping. While irrigation increased production, it also contributed to the depletion of groundwater — a challenge for the future. Other problems: high population density and pollution.

Rivers and culture: Rivers carry immense cultural value. Many communities consider a river's source and its confluence to be sacred. Numerous Indian festivals, ceremonies and rituals occur at such locations. Because plains have gentle slopes, river navigation is easy and supports economic activities — even today people use boats along stretches of the Ganga.

The five Tinais of ancient Tamil Sangam poetry — a landscape classification system linking each region with specific occupations, emotions, and deities. (Source: NCERT)

The five tinais of ancient Tamil Sangam poetry are five landscapes each associated with specific deities, lifestyles, moods or emotions (love, longing, separation, quarrel, etc.).