(a) Religious Communities in India

India is a religiously a plural society with a number of religious communities existing

within India for thousands of years. Christianity was there in India right from 1st century A.D when no other religion was existing in India. It was brought by St. Thomas to Kerala after death of Jesus to Kerala. Islam reached India during 7th/8th century A. D. Islamic rule was much later, but in Kerala, Islamic communities were established after a century of establishment of Islam due to trade links with Arabians in spices, due to trade links both Christianity & Islam established itself rather early. Buddhism & Jainism are indigenous to India & spread to the world from Indian society.

The different religions practiced in India can be broadly classified into the following two groups:

1. Religions of Indic Origin:

Hinduism, Janism, Buddhism, and Sikhism. These are rooted in the long religious

tradition of India.

2. Semitic Religions:

Judaism, Christianity and Islam. These are rooted in the prophetic tradition of Adam and Abraham.

No village or town in India is devoid of a religious monument - Temple, Mosque, Church and Gurudwara etc. There are two aspects of religion in India, the individual aspect and the collective aspect. It is the latter aspect which is emphasized in India.

Religion, Law and the State in India Indian tolerance of beliefs and acceptance of diversity are proverbial. India is a multireligious state in which various faiths are entitled to the protection of their religious laws to an extent. The Indian Constitution respects the religious laws of different communities under the rubric of personal law. ‘Personal Law’ refers to the system of religious rules, customs and practices related with family, marriage and succession. Particularly, in the case of religious minorities.

The Indian Constitution does not refer to religious pluralism as such, but the overall

effect is often described as ‘secular’. It gives equal importance to the religions and this accords well with the traditions of pluralism in India. Article 28 and 29, of the Indian Constitution grants the right to freely profess, practice and propagate one’s religion. This guaranteed to all persons subject to considerations of public order, morality and health. Religion as a Way of Community Life in India In Indian society religion is, primarily, associated with communities rather than with individuals. The Indian Constitution as well as the Indian traditions recognise the place of individual beliefs and individual attempts to search for the divine. The individual quest is considered as rituality, whereas religion is conceptualized as a collective affair to lead a moral life.

Hindu Community in India

Geographically & numerically Hindus are the dominant community in India & dispersed in all parts of country. Hinduism is not a term Indians themselves coined for themselves rather it was introduced by Persians to describe religious practices of people living across river Indus. Hinduism refers to a large variety of religious practices. Although there is a certain degree of continuity general consensus at the scriptural level like Vedas, Upanishads, epics, Shastras, Smriti’s & Shruti’s, & later on in Puranas but within the scriptures itself there are a lot of variations.

Scriptures life applied only to life of Dwijas. Dwija means being born two times. According to Hindu belief, every person at birth is a Shudra & only by undergoing the upanayanam ceremony, they acquire the caste & status of father & are said to be reborn in that castes. Dwijas at no time constituted more than 20% of Hindus population. Presently their population is around 16-17%. Culture & religious practices of Non-Dwijas were different from those of Dwijas. There is also a scriptural prohibition & scriptural avoidance for Non-Dwijas in practicing the practices of Dwijas.

Manusmriti says, ‘Let molten lead be poured into ears of Shudra if he tries to listen to scriptures by treasons. Though it was never done, this shows proscription & denial of scriptural Hinduism to Non-Dwijas. Religions of Non-Dwijas tended to be highly variable. It is referred to as ‘little tradition’ of Hinduism. It was Robert Redfield who introduced the word little & great tradition to study agrarian societies in India. Great tradition is culture of elite i.e. Dwijas. The culture of great traditions is documented in form of scriptural texts. It tends to be universalistic.

It means uniformity of religious practices in Dwijas in India, in a sense it is a Pan-Indian culture, but belonged only to elite strata. Culture of commoners was not documented in scripture & thus tended to be highly variable & parochial i.e. its spread was highly localized.

In addition to these there are many regional traditions. For example: Lord Murugan in Tamil Nadu is not known to North India & so is Vaishno Devi in South India. That is how there was great degree of variation in Hindu society. In spite of these diversities which are mind boggling, there were consensus on some issues in Hindu religion.

Hinduism didn’t have a church like organization to ensure doctrinal discipline. There was no single book to read or interpret the final authority. Therefore various interpretations emerged. Thus there were many castes & sub-castes which were formed based on the basis of their culture & religious practices under the fold of Hinduism. Hindus together constitute more than 79.8% of Indians population as per 2011 census. Such an overwhelmingly population can’t be restricted & thus spread out. In terms of literacy which can be taken as the index of their social development they have 65% literacy rate.

Muslim Community in India

The next largest religious community consists of Muslims. In terms of religious identity they have a single scripture which is a source of their final authority. But even in Islam, except for scriptural uniformity there is a great deal of diversity in Muslims. They are divided into many sectors. Muslims in Kerala are more of Malayali in culture than Islam. People of foreign descent especially Arabians constitute upper strata Muslims known as Ashraf Musalman. Ashraf Musalman consists of Syeds & Sheikhs from Arabia, Mughals from Persia & Pathans who from Afghanistan. Non-Ashrafs consists of overwhelming majority of Islam. They are sometimes referred to as Ajlaf Muslims. Like the Dwijas who had a Pan-Indian image, Ashraf also have a Pan-Indian image/culture. Non-Ashrafs are a kin to regional communities of Hindus. Non-Ashrafs are overwhelming converts of Hinduism to Muslim.

For example: Muslim names ending with Bhatt, Dhar etc are actually Brahmins who

converted to Islam in Northern India. In some parts of Faridabad In India, we find names as Sangram Khan, Mangal Khan etc who are actually Musalmans, who converted to Jats, here is a good synthesis of non- Ashraf Muslims & regional communities of Hinduism in India.

Altaf Hussain who belonged to Uttar Pradesh & migrated to Pakistan after partition said that partition of undivided India is a historic blunder. Muslims from Uttar Pradesh, Bihar etc. who migrated to Pakistan were never accepted in Pakistan by Balochi & Sindhis Muslims. There is equivalent conflict in Karachi as in Kashmir between the natives Muslims of Pakistan & migrant Muslims of India. Ethnic violence is still continuing in Pakistan even after 6 decades of its formation, though it is an Islamic state. Pervez Musharraf a Delhi boy is more admired in India than in Pakistan. So, culturally a great deal of diversity exists in non- Ashraf religious communities. Bhutto, Bhati & Bhatia are Muslim converts of Rajputs. Grand farther of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, Shah Nawaz Khan Bhutto who happened to be the Chief Minister of Nawab of Junagarh was actually a Rajput. This is how in the Indian subcontinent & especially in India, there is actually a synthesis.

Numerical strength of Muslims in India is 13.5%. Economically & socially Muslims

constitute most deprived sections of Indian population. Literacy rate among Muslims is 59%. It is the lowest literacy rate among various religious communities in India. In term of incidence of poverty, especially in urban India, highest incidence of poverty is found in Muslims which is 49%. Sachchar committee highlights the plight of Muslims in India & so Muslim communities are called as a religiously minority in India.

Christian Community in India

Jesus Christ as the Prophet, the New Testament as the revealed book and the Church as the religious organization are the foundation stones of Christianity. Jesus and his early disciples were all Jews. The New Testament in the present form was accepted in the churches around the fifth century A.D. In early years the Old Testament or the Hebrew Bible or the Torah was their only scripture. Christianity and Islam are rooted in the Jewish or Hebrew tradition and affirm the revelation of Moses contained in the Old Treatment.

The three constituents of Christians’ religious life include (i) Faith in Jesus Christ as the messenger of the God, (ii) Active service, and (iii) Love to the neighbour. Christianity came to India in different phases. According to the Syrian Christian tradition, Apostle Thomas, one of Jesus’ original twelve disciplines, came to the vicinity of Cochin in 52 A.D. There was a Christian church in India perhaps as early as the end of the second century.

Thomas' or 'Syrian' Christians have never shown any great desire to expand beyond their own natural frontiers. The second, a Roman Catholic phase of India's Christian history, began in the 1250s, with the arrival of the first missionaries of the Franciscan and Dominican orders. After 1500 A.D., following the Portuguese occupation of parts of Western India, there was fresh infusion of missionaries.

The third phase of Christian history in India began in July 1706 with the arrival of the

first Protestant missionaries from Germany. The fourth phase of Christian expansion started during the British Rule in India. The English Baptist missionary William Carey arrived in India in 1793. He inaugurated the most concentrated phase of Protestant Christian activity in India. Between 1751 and 1813 the East India Company was against Christian missionaries but later its policy changed in favour of the Christian missionaries.

During the British rule after 1833 there were two dimensions of Christian activity - (i) it was very active in and around colleges and universities at Kolkata, Mumbai and Chennai (ii) it was also active in rural and tribal areas, especially among the weaker sections.

During 1920s the fifth phase of Christian activity began in India. The American organisation, Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA), and American Christians like Stanley Jones and Katherine Mayo were influential during this phase. The sixth phase of Christian activity began after 1947. The Church of South India was founded in 1947. It comprised fourteen dioceses and about a million members spread over four language areas. Most notably it did not involve the Roman Catholics or the Lutherans. The Church of North India, founded in 1970, tried to Indianise Christianity at the organizational level.

Following the second Vatican Council in the mid of 1960s, the Roman Catholic church in India was liberated from many of its earlier restrictions. Many experiments were made to Hinduise the church's Liturgy by the introduction of elements from the temple and Bhakti traditions.

The Indian Census merges Christians into a single group, but they belong to different

denominations. Catholics from the largest group, nearly 30 per cent of the total

population. Another 40 per cent are Protestants, 7 per cent are the Orthodox Christians, Eastern orthodox church and 6 per cent belong to indigenous sects.

Catholics are organised according to a well-defined hierarchy and they consider the Pope as the supreme head of all religious affairs. Protestantism includes many distinct persuasions and churches. Orthodox groups, such as the Syrian Christians, are affiliated to the orthodox churches of Eastern Europe or West Asia or to the churches dependent on these.

At one point, even today, the boundaries between the Kerala Syrians end Hindus are

blurred as in the rituals of house building or astrology. The ceremonies of marriage and birth among the Syrian Christians also manifest many similarities with Hindu custom, particularly in the use of ritual substances such as sandalwood paste, milk, flowers, areca nut and rice. In Tamil Nadu and Goa, Christianity is embedded in the indigenous socioritual order.

Pilgrimage: With the exception of the Protestant religions, who do not go on pilgrimages, Catholics and the orthodox visit places of pilgrimage on the occasion of festivals. Owing to their greater Christian population places like Goa. Kerala and Tamil Nadu and cities like Chennai, Mumbai and Kolkata have many places of pilgrimage. The Roman Catholics in India regard the Pope - the bishop of Rome - as their supreme religious leader. Indian Catholics are guided by two cardinals, one at Mumbai and the other at Ernakulam. There are over 120 bishops in India. There are thirty five religious orders of Christian priests in India. Ceremonies: Seven sacraments of the Roman Catholic Church have to be administered by a priest or bishop. Baptism – the ritual process of becoming/making a Christian is performed when a child is a few days old. Confirmation is performed when a child is seven years old among Catholics and fifteen year old among Protestants. She or he taught

the main tenents and obligations of the Christian faith for several months by the priest.

After this instruction one is ready to be confirmed by the bishop. Marriage rites have to be solemnized by a priest in church. The Christian masses have castes or caste like groups. Joint family is a dominant institution. They do not have a distinct style of life (except Anglo-Indians) and are usually absorbed into the local regional linguistic communities.

Jainism

Jainism is one of the oldest religions in India. It is a form of Sanatan Dharma. It has 24 tirthankaras. The first tirthankar was Risabhdev and the twenty-fourth tirthankar was Mahavir. The Jains share some doctrines, rituals and general religious beliefs with early Buddhists and Hindus but they have a religious system of their own. Mahavir is supposed to be senior contemporary of Gautam Buddha. He was a great system builder. The Jain community is divided into two important sects, Svetambar (white clothed), and Digambar (unclothed). Another lesser known sect is called Sthanakvasi. The Sthanakvasi think that tirthankaras need not be represented in images. The Svetambaras think that tirthankaras should be represented in images with a white robes. The Digambaras think that tirthankaras should be represented in images without robes or clothes.

The word 'Jain' is derived from the Sanskrit word 'JIN' which means 'conqueror'. Mahavir (599-527 B.C.) said that everything, animate or inanimate has ‘jiva’ (life force). The goal of human endeavour should be to exhaust karma and the way of deliverance is in the three gems or rules of behaviour: right faith, right knowledge and right conduct. Right conduct includes nonviolence, adherence to truth, chastity and the renunciation of worldly possession.

Jains believe in soul, theory of karma, the cycle of birth and death like the Hindus.

Jainism has however, more similarities with Buddhism. Jainism along with Buddhism

belongs to the shramanic forms of sanatana dharma. The shramanic traditions as a whole emphasizes the renunciation of worldly belongings and pleasures. Their quest is directed at achieving emancipation from worldly existence and the cycle of birth and death.

Emancipation (Kaivalya) and renunciation (vairagya or sanyasa) are the two themes

addressed principally. For all Jains, fasting and austerity are considered essential for self purification. They lay stress on mental disciplines to obtain self-control, concentration in contemplation and 'purity of thought’. Jainism also stresses that personal spiritual development achieved through penance should be for the benefit of the community. The teaching of Mahavir is that altruism in individual life can be the source of positive social welfare, The five-fold discipline of non-violence, truth, honesty, sexual purity and indifference to material gain is not for personal virtue alone but also aims at the social good.

Jain festivals are meant for the spiritual development of the self through the practice of austerities. Mahavir Jayanti is the most well-known festival of Jains. The Jains are among the richest community in India. The majority of Jains are engaged in trade and commercial activities.

Buddhism

Buddhism was one of the new religious movements that arose in India around the sixth century B.C. It is rooted in the traditional Indian religion called Sanatan Dharma. It is one of the three major forms of India religions, the other two being Hinduism and Jainism. It was founded around the teachings of Gautam Buddha.

The Buddhist profession of faith is known as the 'Triple Refuge', or the three levels - the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha. The Buddha is the enlightened teacher or the prophet. The Dhamma is the doctrine given by the Buddha and the Sangha is the community of believers in the doctrine taught by the Buddha. One formally becomes a Buddhist by reciting the Triple Refuge three times – “I go for refuge to the Buddha, I go for refuge to the Dhamm, I go for refuge to the Sangha”.

Dhamma has four meanings (1) the absolute truth. (2) right conduct. (3) doctrine and (4) the ultimate constituent of experience. The first three meanings are found in Hinduism as well but the fourth meaning is specific to Buddhism.

The Buddhists believe in the four noble truths preached by the Buddha. The first noble truth preached by the Buddha is that there is suffering. The second noble truth says that there is cause of suffering (desire). The third noble truth says that the cause of suffering can be removed. The fourth great truth supplies a detailed blueprint to remove the cause of suffering. The Eightfold Path consists of right view, right aspiration, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness and right meditation. The Eightfold path leads to Nirvan which involves the cessation of all sufferings. The four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path are meant to serve as provisional teaching.

Vinay Pitak (Book of Discipline) Sutta Pitak (Book of Sermons) and Abhidamm Pitak

(Book of doctrine) are the basic scriptures of Buddhism. There are four major forms of Buddhism. (i) Theravad (ii) Mahayan, (iii) Vajrayan or Tantra, and (iv) Zen. Different forms are predominant in different countries or geographical areas. The most important festival of the Buddhists in India is the Buddha Purnima. There are other festivals which are celebrated by different sects and denominations. Some Hindu festivals like Diwali, Holi and Makar Sankranti are also celebrated by many Buddhist families.

Sikhism

Sikhism emerged as a devotional sect within the Indian religion around the teachings of Guru Nanak (1469-1539). The term Sikh has originated from the Sankrit word ‘Shishya’, which means discipline. Nanak traveled all over India, and to Sri Lanka, Mecca and Madina He sang his hymns wherever he went spreading his message of love, purity and universal brotherhood.

There are ten gurus (religious teachers) of Sikhs. Nanak was the first guru and Govind Singh was the tent guru. Arjun was the fifth guru who complied the Guru Granth Sahib (holy book of the Sikhs). The Guru Granth contains hymns composed by the devotional saints as well as the writings of the Sikh gurus. Guru Arjun infused great vigor into Sikhism. He made Amritsar his headquarters where he built a Gurudwara (temple of the guru). From the time of Guru Arjun, Sikhism gradually became a militant organization. Govind Singh (1675-1708), the tenth guru converted the Sikhs into a militant community called the Khalsa (the pure). He gave the Sikhs a distinct individuality in 1699 by initiating five of his followers. He enjoined them, among other admonitions, never to cut their hair always to wear a comb, a pair of short drawers, a bangle and a kirpan (dagger). These are called five K's - Kesha, Kangha, Kaccha, Kada and Kirpan. The Sikh community life is centered around Gurudwara (gate way or temple of the guru). The central object of worship in the gurudwara is the Granth Sahib.

The Sikhs are primarily divided into two broader groups (i) The Sanatani Sikhs, and (ii) The Khalsa Sikhs.

The Sanatani Sikhs are the followers of Guru Nanak and his son Srichand. The Sanatani Sikhs do not stress separate religious identity of Sikhs, rather they consider

themselves as an offshoot of a broadly defined 'Hinduism. The Khalsa Sikhs or Tat Khalsa is based on the radical interpretation of the teachings of Guru Govind Singh. It claims to represent 'true' Sikhism, stripped of the popular customs of Hinduism. It separated Sikhism from the broader rubric of Hinduism. They emphasized that Sikhism is an independent new religion based on three foundations - Guru, Granth and Gurudwara.

In 1925 the Gurdwara Act was passed. It led to the emergence of Shromani Gurudwara Prabhandhak Committee (SGPC) as the supreme body of Sikhs in Punjab. It manages the religious affairs of Sikhs and the Gurudwaras. Sikhs still participate in some of the festivals celebrated by the Hindus like Basant Panchami, Holi and Diwali. Their own festivals include Baisakhi and the birthdays of Sikh Gurus like Nanak and Govind Singh and the Martyrdom of Guru Arjun, Guru Teg Bhaadur and the two sons of Govind Singh. They also celebrate the founding of the Khalsa and Hola Mohalla.

Sikhs, too, are a prosperous community in India. They are engaged in diverse professions both villages and cities. Although Sikhism does not believe in caste, there are caste like groups among the Sikhs as well.

Other Religious Groups

Zoroastrians or the Parsees

The word Parsee means Persians and refers to those Persians who migrated to India from Iran in the tenth century A.D. They had migrated to India from their Iranian (Persian) homeland. The Parsi community recognizes Zoroaster or Zarathustra as their prophet. Therefore, they are also known as Zoroastrians.

Zorostrianism is one of the oldest prophetic religious of the world. Zoroaster lived in the North - East of Iran on the Asian steppes around 6,000 BC. They inherited much of the Indo-Iranian tradition so that Zoroastrianism and Hinduism have something of a common parentage. This results in a number of similarities between the two, such as the place of fire in ancient texts - the Vedas of Hindus and the Avesta of the Parsee - and certain purity laws and attitudes toward the priests.

The Prophet's teachings are preserved in hymn form in Gothic Avestan language which has strong links with Vedic Sanskrit. So, Zorostrianism was the state religion of Iran until the Muslim Arab invasion of the seventh century A.D. By the ninth century, the persecution of Zoroastrians in Iran became unbearable so that they decided to migrate to different places in India and other countries.

Most Parsee in India are city dwellers. They are settled in Mumbai and different places in Gujarat. They are one of the most prosperous communities they are also one of the most integrated communities to the mainstream of modern India. Dadabhoy Naoroji, Pherozeshah Mehta and the family of Tatas have played significant roles in the building of modern India.

They have been pioneers in modern trades and industrial enterprises. They have also played important roles in building the various institutions of Mumbai.

Parsee usually spend little time in theological study. To most Parsee, theirs religion is tied with their identity. Their identity is maintained by the performance of life-cycle rituals and observances of moral practices in daily life. The ideas of purity and pollution are very important among the Parsee. Their daily prayer is called ‘navjote’. There are only two religious duties for Parsee, the daily prayers and the observance of the seasonal festivals, the gahambars.

Zoroastrianism was originally a religion of ‘Nature Worship’. Natural objects like fire,

air, the sun and water were considered sacred. Today they are primarily fire worshippers. At Udwada, the centre of pilgrimage for Parsee, there is one 'permanently burning fire' shrine. There are two types of fire temples which distinguished from each other by the grade of fire which burns within them, one is called the ‘Royal Bahram’ or victorious fire and the other is called the ‘Dar-i-Milir’ or the ordinary fire.

The Parsee are known for their philanthropy. The many sided philanthropy of the Parsee has established through their Panchayat, a remarkable social security system for the community. Its members make their contributions to the local anjuman fund or community chest which constitutes the foundations of the system. The community has many trusts and foundations, benefiting non-Parsee as well. The Parsee have laid claim to no territory and to no special right for themselves. They emphasize the moral and civic sense and philanthropy over philosophical doctrines.

Judaism

The Jews or the followers of Judaism are perhaps the smallest religious community the India. According to Indian census of 2001 there were about 266740 Jews in India. They were classified by census authorities of India along with Zoroastrians and Animist tribals as part of a miscellaneous category called other religious groups. The Jews in India comprise three main communities-the Bene-Israel, Kerala-Jews and

Baghdadi-Jews. Some Jews came to India before the beginning of the Christian era. The oldest communities have been the Bene-Israel who are settled mainly in the Coastal areas of Maharashtra. The other groups settled in Kerala near Cochin. The third group came from the Middle East (Baghdad) and settled in Mumbai, Kolkata, Pune, Surat and Chennai. A large number of them have migrated from India to Israel in 1948. Judaism is the original Hebrew or Semitic religion. It is based on the revelation of Moses.

The Hebrew Bible or the Torah is their sacred religious text. Their temple is known as Synagogue. Led by Abraham, they settled in Israel, originally called Canaan and later Palestine. In 63 B.C. Palestine came under Roman rule and between 70 AD to 1948 the Jews lived in different places as scattered groups. In 1948 they re-established Israel as their holy nation-state and Jews came back to their homeland in large numbers from different countries. Jews in India began to integrate themselves increasingly with their surroundings. They adopted the customs, dress, characteristics and day-to-day practices of the people of the region. They are a very homogeneous group and strictly adhere to their religious beliefs. Unlike Christianity and Islam, Judaism is not open for non-Jews. They do not convert.

Animism

Most tribals who have not converted to Hinduism, Islam or Christianity are classified by sociologists as Animists or Nature worshippers. There are striking similarities between Animist tribals and followers of Folk Hinduism. Therefore, Indian census authorities have always encountered difficulties. In 2001 census, Animist tribals are classified in the category of 'Other Religious Groups' but some other tribals have been classified as Hindus. There is always ambiguity in the classification of Hindu tribals and Animist tribals. There are different types of nature worshippers both among the Hindus as well as among the tribals. One thing is common among all Animists that they do not have written texts. They usually believe that every animate object of this world is inhabited by spirits and they venerate all these.

Problems of Minorities in India

Muslims

Muslims came in India and settled here around 11th century. Mainly, Muslims came from Central Asia like Afghanistan, Mongolia, Egypt, etc. Muslim settled in India through the social process of conflict, accommodation, acculturation and integration. The previous invaders assimilated in Hindu culture whereas Muslims managed their identity which reflected in various wars, conflicts, etc. During British period, the problems for Muslims started. Traditionally, the socioeconomic and political positions of Muslim was very strong because:

- Traditionally, they were in administration and official jobs.

- Since Muslims are urban centric community, hence skilled, semi-skilled and small cottage industries belonged to them.

During British period, they started losing their socio-political, economic dominance in

Indian society because:

- After 1857 revolt it was released that without weakening Muslim, British rule cannot be established and hence the policy of Hindu promotism was formulated in which English and Hindus were involved in administration jobs.

- Since the aim of colonial rule was to plunder economic wealth of India and to promote the British goods, they consciously destructed the developed small scale industries, cottage, handicrafts of India which hit the Muslims worstly.

The above mentioned reasons led to pauperization of Muslims in India. During the British rule, cities became the centre of opportunities which attracted rural urban migration. On the one hand Muslims lost the command over urban economy and on the other hand rural-urban migration increased the cost of living further, which hit the Muslims worst. When industries and cities developed, rural urban migration followed and finally the rural migrants entered in the profession of Muslim - self-employed traders, manufacturers, hawkers etc., which further led to unemployment and poverty among them.

During freedom struggler communalism became a political issue because of the purpose of mobilization which brought unharmonious relation between Hindus and Muslims which finally resulted into partition of India amid violence and bloodshed. After partition developed a sense of disbelief among the Hindus and Muslims towards each other which resulted into various communal riots.

The totality of these consequences finally led to various problems of Muslim minorities like:

1) Poverty and unemployment

2) Illiteracy and lack of higher education

3) Minority fear psychosis

4) Orthodoxy

5) Unable to cope up with the rapid changes.

Sacchar Commission identified merely 2.5% Muslims in public posts which show that

their representation in mainstream is lesser than any community. It is essential for any society to accommodate and give an honourable place to this 150 million population and for that following measures can be taken:

1) Traditionally Muslims are artisans and skilled workers hence this skill should be flourished in terms of technical, institutional and strategic support.

2) Under constitutional provisions a system and policy must be developed so that their representation in public life can be increased. It will provide role model for them which will help them to join mainstream society.

3) Muslims have a problem of minority fear psychosis which is further increased by rightist wing like Shiv Sena, Bajrang Dal, etc. They are required to be checked and a harmonious relation between Hindus and Muslims will help them to come out from fear psychosis.

4) Educationally, Muslims are backward and only modern education can help them

to understand the changing realities. Hence, modern education must be taken to their doorsteps in form of Navodaya Vidyalayas, Central schools and other qualitative education.

Communal tensions are the common problems among Hindus and Muslim hence in those areas where those are neighbors some respected figures are required to be identified and they must be interacting with each other so that for self and political gains no one takes political advantage.

Christians

First time in 10th century A.D. a Christian missionary St. Thomas arrived at Kerala coast. Initially, he was able to convert some Nambudri Brahmans and over the period their activities remained in Kerala.

Later, missionaries changed their focus from upper caste to remote tribal areas of North East, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, etc. and over the period issues of conversion became a point of debate. After independence, in constituent Assembly it was discussed that whether the right to conversion or propagation should be there or not. Sardar Ballabh Bhai Patel, Shyama Prasad Mookerjee opposed it, whereas K.T. Munshi, P.D. Tandon said if these laws are made it would seem that laws are made in keeping Christians in mind.

Finally, under Article 28 and 29, right to propagation of one’s faith became a fundamental right. Then onwards lots of communal tensions and riots have taken place on the issue of conversion between Christians and right wing Hindus.

Riots in Meenakshipuram in Tamil Nadu, rape of a nun in Jhabua, murder of a priest in Dang of Gujarat, and killing of Graham Staines and his sons in Manoharpur, Odisha and violence in Kandhmal in Odisha are some of the examples.

Madhya Pradesh government set up Justice Niyogi Commission to give the report over missionaries activities which recommended that missionaries activities are suspicious and required to be regulated. Regarding this recommendation MP government made the law to regulate the activities of conversion. Against this law in Stennis Iaas Vs. MP Government, Supreme Court gave the verdict that activities of conversion is not one’s Fundamental Right.

The problem is still continuing because on the one hand Christians believe that

propagation of religion is a Fundamental Right whereas rightist wing cries of a foul play. Hence, it is important that in the light of Article 28-29 a very clear and unambiguous guidelines should be formulated so that the missionaries and the right wing can carry their activities accordingly and unnecessary communal riots and tension can be avoided.

From last few years, a new demand for Dalit Christians in form of reservation has

appeared which may turn into a problem in coming future otherwise, Christians are

educated, evil free and almost do not have any other problems.

Sikhs

Major problem of Sikh emerged after partition when:

1) Sikh dominated Punjab was portioned as Pakistan Punjab dominated by Muslims and Indian Punjab by Sikhs. In both provinces, Sikhs became minority.

2) Nankana Saheb/Talwandi Sahab went to Pakistan which hurt the religious

sentiments of Sikhs.

3) SGPC (Sri Gurudawara Prabandhak Committee) which manages the religion properties of Sikhs started propagating communalism among Sikhs.

4) During partition Sikhs were the most suffered community in terms of life and property loss.

This all resulted into a demand of a separate Khalistan which led to operation Blue Star followed by assassination of Indira Gandhi, the then Prime Minister which was followed by anti-Sikh riots in India, especially in Delhi.

In 1990s, the then Chief Minister Beant Singh and DGP, K.P.S. Gill tackled terrorism in Punjab and now Sikh as such do not have any problems because they are the most prosperous, developed communities of India