Chapter 1 · Resources and Development
NCERT Contemporary India – II (Class X Geography) | Reprint 2026-27
1. What is a Resource?
Everything available in our environment which can be used to satisfy our needs, provided it is technologically accessible, economically feasible and culturally acceptable, can be termed as a ‘Resource’.
The process of transformation of things available in our environment involves an interactive relationship between nature, technology and institutions. Human beings interact with nature through technology and create institutions to accelerate economic development.
Resources are not free gifts of nature. They are a function of human activities. Human beings themselves are essential components of resources — they transform material available in the environment into resources.
📌 Key Insight (UPSC-relevant)
Resources are not inherent properties of things; they are defined by human perception, technology, and institutional context. Coal was not a resource before industrialisation.
2. Classification of Resources
Fig. 1.2: Classification of Resources (NCERT)
A. On the Basis of Origin
| Type | Description | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Biotic | Obtained from the biosphere (living organisms) | Plants, animals, fish, human beings |
| Abiotic | Composed of non-living things | Rocks, metals, water, solar energy |
B. On the Basis of Exhaustibility
| Type | Sub-type | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Renewable | Continuous / Flow | Wind, water, solar energy |
| Biological | Natural vegetation (forests), wildlife | |
| Non-Renewable | Recyclable | Metals (iron, copper) |
| Non-Recyclable | Fossil fuels (coal, petroleum) |
C. On the Basis of Ownership
| Type | Description | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Individual | Owned by private individuals | Plots, farms, plantation |
| Community | Accessible to all members of a community | Village ponds, public parks, grazing grounds |
| National | Belonging to the nation / government | Roads, railways, minerals (in most cases), water bodies |
| International | Beyond national jurisdiction | Open ocean resources, Antarctica |
D. On the Basis of Status of Development
| Type | Description | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Potential | Found in a region but not yet utilised | Solar/wind energy of Rajasthan & Gujarat |
| Developed | Surveyed, quality & quantity determined, being used | Coal of Jharkhand, iron ore of Chhattisgarh |
| Stock | Available but technology to access it does not exist | Hydrogen as fuel |
| Reserves | Subset of stock; can be used with existing technology but access is kept for future | Water in dams, forest reserves |
Human Resources
Human resources are classified on the basis of their structures and institutions as well as quantity and quality (health, education, skills).
3. Development of Resources – Problems of Indiscriminate Use
Resources are vital for human survival and quality of life. The belief that resources are free gifts of nature led to their indiscriminate use, resulting in:
- Depletion of resources to satisfy the greed of a few individuals.
- Accumulation of resources in few hands → division into rich and poor (haves and have-nots).
- Global ecological crises: global warming, ozone layer depletion, environmental pollution, land degradation.
An equitable distribution of resources is essential for sustained quality of life and global peace. If the present trend of resource depletion by a few individuals and countries continues, the future of our planet is in danger.
4. Sustainable Development
📗 Definition (NCERT)
“Development should take place without damaging the environment, and development in the present should not compromise with the needs of the future generations.”
Key Milestones
| Year | Event / Person | Contribution |
|---|---|---|
| 1968 | Club of Rome | First systematic advocacy for resource conservation at international level |
| 1974 | Schumacher – Small is Beautiful | Presented Gandhian philosophy of resource conservation |
| 1987 | Brundtland Commission Report – Our Common Future | Introduced the concept of ‘Sustainable Development’ |
| 1992 | Earth Summit, Rio de Janeiro | Signed Declaration on Global Climatic Change & Biological Diversity; endorsed Forest Principles; adopted Agenda 21 |
🔵 Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit, 1992
In June 1992, more than 100 heads of states met in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, for the first International Earth Summit. It addressed urgent problems of environmental protection and socio-economic development. Leaders signed the Declaration on Global Climatic Change and Biological Diversity. The Rio Convention endorsed the global Forest Principles and adopted Agenda 21.
📗 Agenda 21
Declaration signed by world leaders in 1992 at UNCED, Rio de Janeiro. It aims at achieving global sustainable development. It is an agenda to combat environmental damage, poverty, disease through global co-operation on common interests, mutual needs and shared responsibilities. One major objective: every local government should draw its own local Agenda 21.
💬 Gandhiji’s Quote (Frequently asked)
“There is enough for everybody’s need and not for anybody’s greed.” He placed greedy individuals and exploitative nature of modern technology as the root cause of resource depletion. He was against mass production and wanted to replace it with production by the masses.
5. Resource Planning
Planning is the widely accepted strategy for judicious use of resources. It has special importance in India due to enormous diversity in resource availability.
Regional Resource Disparities (India)
| State / Region | Rich In | Deficient In |
|---|---|---|
| Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh | Minerals and coal | Infrastructural development |
| Arunachal Pradesh | Water resources | Infrastructure |
| Rajasthan | Solar and wind energy | Water resources |
| Ladakh (Cold desert) | Rich cultural heritage | Water, infrastructure, vital minerals |
Resource Planning Process in India
- Identification and inventory of resources across the regions – involves surveying, mapping, qualitative & quantitative estimation.
- Evolving a planning structure with appropriate technology, skill and institutional set-up for implementing resource development plans.
- Matching the resource development plans with overall national development plans.
India has made concerted efforts since the First Five Year Plan after Independence.
⚠️ Critical Insight (UPSC-relevant)
Mere availability of resources ≠ development. Many resource-rich regions are economically backward. Resources contribute to development only when accompanied by appropriate technology and institutional changes. The history of colonialism proves this — colonisers used higher technology to exploit resource-rich colonies.
6. Land Resources
Land is a natural resource of utmost importance. It supports natural vegetation, wildlife, human life, economic activities, transport and communication systems. Land is an asset of finite magnitude — careful planning is essential.
India’s Land Relief Features
Fig. 1.3: India – Land under important Relief Features (NCERT)
| Relief Feature | % of Total Area | Significance |
|---|---|---|
| Plains | 43% | Facilities for agriculture and industry |
| Mountains | 30% | Perennial river flow, tourism, ecological aspects |
| Plateaus | 27% | Rich reserves of minerals, fossil fuels and forests |
Land Utilisation Categories
- Forests
- Land not available for cultivation
- (a) Barren and waste land
- (b) Land put to non-agricultural uses (buildings, roads, factories)
- Other uncultivated land (excluding fallow)
- (a) Permanent pastures and grazing land
- (b) Land under miscellaneous tree crops and groves (not in net sown area)
- (c) Culturable waste land (left uncultivated for more than 5 agricultural years)
- Fallow lands
- (a) Current fallow – left without cultivation for one or less than one agricultural year
- (b) Other than current fallow – left uncultivated for past 1 to 5 agricultural years
- Net Sown Area (NSA) – the physical extent of land on which crops are sown and harvested.
📌 Gross Cropped Area
Area sown more than once in an agricultural year + Net Sown Area = Gross Cropped Area
Land Use Pattern in India
Determined by both physical factors (topography, climate, soil types) and human factors (population density, technological capability, culture and traditions).
Total geographical area of India = 3.28 million sq km. Land use data available only for 93% of total geographical area (north-east states except Assam not fully reported; some areas of J&K occupied by Pakistan and China also not surveyed).
Fig. 1.4: General Land Use Categories – 1960–61 vs 2019–20
(Source: Directorate of Economics & Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, GoI, 2023)
(Source: Directorate of Economics & Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, GoI, 2023)
Key Land Use Facts
| Indicator | 1960–61 | 2019–20 | Remarks |
|---|---|---|---|
| Forest | 18.11% | 23.41% | Far below desired 33% (National Forest Policy, 1952) |
| Net Sown Area | 45.26% | 45.64% | Very marginal increase |
| Barren & Unculturable Waste | 12.01% | 5.40% | Reduced |
| Area under Non-Agri Uses | 4.95% | 9.06% | Increased – urbanisation |
| Permanent Pasture | 4.71% | 3.42% | Decreased – pressure on livestock |
| Culturable Waste Land | 6.23% | 4.49% | Slight decrease |
🔵 NSA by State
Net sown area is over 80% in Punjab and Haryana. Less than 10% in Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Manipur, and Andaman & Nicobar Islands (due to topography, forest cover, and sparse population).
⚠️ Forest Area Gap
Forest area is far lower than the desired 33% of geographical area as outlined in the National Forest Policy (1952). Maintaining 33% is considered essential for ecological balance.
7. Land Degradation and Conservation Measures
95% of our basic needs for food, shelter and clothing are obtained from land. Continuous use without appropriate conservation measures leads to land degradation.
Causes of Land Degradation (State-wise)
| Cause | States Affected |
|---|---|
| Deforestation due to mining | Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha |
| Over-grazing | Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra |
| Over-irrigation → water logging → salinity & alkalinity | Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh |
| Mineral processing dust (grinding of limestone, calcite, soapstone) | Industrial areas across India |
| Industrial effluents | Industrial and suburban areas |
Conservation Measures
| Area | Measures |
|---|---|
| Arid Areas | Planting shelter belts; controlling over-grazing; stabilising sand dunes by growing thorny bushes |
| Industrial / Suburban | Proper management of waste lands; control of mining activities; proper discharge and treatment of industrial effluents |
| General | Afforestation; proper management of grazing |
8. Soil as a Resource
Soil is the most important natural resource. It is the medium of plant growth and supports different types of living organisms on the earth. The soil is a living system. It takes millions of years to form soil up to a few cm in depth.
Factors of Soil Formation
- Relief, parent rock / bed rock, climate, vegetation and other life forms, and time
- Natural forces: change in temperature, running water, wind, glaciers, decomposers
- Chemical and organic changes in the soil
Soil Profile
Fig. 1.5: Soil Profile (NCERT)
| Horizon | Description |
|---|---|
| Top Soil | The upper soil layer; rich in humus and minerals; supports plant life |
| Subsoil | Weathered rocks, sand and silt clay |
| Substratum | Weathered parent rock material |
| Unweathered Parent Bed Rock | The base rock from which soil develops over millions of years |
Soil also consists of organic (humus) and inorganic materials.
9. Classification of Soils in India
India: Major Soil Types (NCERT)
A. Alluvial Soil
| Feature | Details |
|---|---|
| Distribution | Entire northern plains; Rajasthan & Gujarat (narrow corridor); eastern coastal plains (deltas of Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri) |
| Deposited by | Three Himalayan river systems – Indus, Ganga, Brahmaputra |
| Composition | Various proportions of sand, silt and clay; coarser near piedmont plains (Duars, Chos, Terai) |
| Types by Age | Bangar (old alluvial) – higher concentration of kanker nodules, less fine particles Khadar (new alluvial) – more fine particles, more fertile |
| Nutrients | Potash, phosphoric acid and lime (ideal for sugarcane, paddy, wheat, cereals, pulses) |
| Fertility | Very fertile; regions intensively cultivated and densely populated |
| Drier areas | More alkaline; productive after proper treatment and irrigation |
B. Black Soil (Regur Soil)
| Feature | Details |
|---|---|
| Also known as | Regur soil; Black Cotton Soil |
| Ideal crop | Cotton |
| Origin | Deccan Trap (Basalt) region; lava flows |
| Distribution | Plateaus of Maharashtra, Saurashtra, Malwa, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh; south-east along Godavari and Krishna valleys |
| Texture | Extremely fine, clayey material |
| Key properties | High moisture-retaining capacity; rich in calcium carbonate, magnesium, potash, lime; generally poor in phosphoric content |
| Behaviour | Develops deep cracks in hot weather (helps aeration); sticky when wet (tillage needed immediately after first shower) |
C. Red and Yellow Soils
| Feature | Details |
|---|---|
| Formation | Develops on crystalline igneous rocks in areas of low rainfall |
| Distribution | Eastern and southern parts of Deccan plateau; parts of Odisha, Chhattisgarh, southern middle Ganga plain; piedmont zone of Western Ghats |
| Colour reason | Reddish – diffusion of iron in crystalline and metamorphic rocks; Yellow – hydrated form |
D. Laterite Soil
Fig. 1.8: Laterite Soil (NCERT)
| Feature | Details |
|---|---|
| Etymology | From Latin word ‘later’ meaning brick |
| Climate | Tropical and subtropical – alternate wet and dry season |
| Formation | Intense leaching due to heavy rain |
| Properties | Mostly deep to very deep; acidic (pH < 6.0); generally deficient in plant nutrients |
| Distribution | Southern states; Western Ghats region of Maharashtra; Odisha; parts of West Bengal; North-east regions |
| Vegetation link | Humus-rich under deciduous and evergreen forests; humus-poor in sparse vegetation / semi-arid |
| After conservation | Useful for tea and coffee in Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu |
| Red laterite | Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala – suitable for cashew nut |
E. Arid Soils
| Feature | Details |
|---|---|
| Colour | Red to brown |
| Texture | Generally sandy, saline in nature |
| Properties | Lacks humus and moisture; high evaporation; salt content very high in some areas |
| Lower horizons | Occupied by Kankar – calcium content increases downward; Kankar layer restricts water infiltration |
| After irrigation | Become cultivable – as in western Rajasthan |
F. Forest Soils
| Feature | Details |
|---|---|
| Location | Hilly and mountainous areas with rain forests |
| Texture varies | Loamy and silty in valley sides; coarse grained in upper slopes |
| In Himalayas (snow-covered) | Acidic with low humus content due to denudation |
| Lower valleys | Fertile – river terraces and alluvial fans |
Quick Comparison Table
| Soil Type | Best Crop | Key State(s) | Special Feature |
|---|---|---|---|
| Alluvial | Wheat, paddy, sugarcane | UP, Punjab, Haryana, WB | Most widespread; Bangar & Khadar |
| Black (Regur) | Cotton | Maharashtra, MP, Gujarat | Deep cracks; high moisture retention |
| Red & Yellow | Millets, pulses | Deccan plateau, Odisha | Iron diffusion gives red colour |
| Laterite | Tea, coffee, cashew | Karnataka, Kerala, TN | Intense leaching; acidic; brick-like |
| Arid | After irrigation | Rajasthan | Kankar layer; saline; sandy |
| Forest | Varies | Himalayan & NE states | Texture varies with altitude |
10. Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation
Soil erosion = denudation of the soil cover and subsequent washing down. Soil formation and erosion go on simultaneously; normally there is a balance. This balance is disturbed by human activities (deforestation, over-grazing, construction, mining) and natural forces (wind, glacier, water).
Types of Soil Erosion
| Type | How it occurs | Result |
|---|---|---|
| Gully Erosion | Running water cuts through clayey soils making deep channels (gullies) | Land becomes bad land / ravines (Chambal basin) |
| Sheet Erosion | Water flows as a sheet over large areas down a slope | Top soil washed away |
| Wind Erosion | Wind blows loose soil off flat or sloping land | Loss of top soil in arid regions |
Fig. 1.11: Gully Erosion (NCERT)
Soil Conservation Methods
| Method | How it Works | Where Used |
|---|---|---|
| Contour Ploughing | Ploughing along contour lines decelerates water flow down slopes | Hilly areas |
| Terrace Cultivation | Steps cut on slopes restrict erosion | Western and central Himalayas |
| Strip Cropping | Large fields divided into strips; grass strips break wind force | Open agricultural areas |
| Shelter Belts | Rows of trees planted to break wind | Western India – stabilisation of sand dunes; Rajasthan desert |
| Afforestation | Planting trees on a large scale | Everywhere |
| Thorny Bush Stabilisation | Thorny bushes stabilise sand dunes | Arid areas |
📌 Bad Land / Ravines
In the Chambal basin, gully-eroded lands are called ravines. The land becomes unfit for cultivation.
NCERT Exercises – Answers
MCQ Answers (NCERT)
- Main cause of land degradation in Punjab: (c) Over irrigation
- State practising terrace cultivation: (d) Uttarakhand
- State predominantly having black soil: (b) Maharashtra
Short Answers (30 words)
Q1. Three states having black soil and main crop:
Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh. Main crop: Cotton (hence also called ‘black cotton soil’).
Q2. Soil in river deltas of eastern coast – three features:
Alluvial soil. Features: (i) composed of sand, silt and clay; (ii) rich in potash, phosphoric acid and lime; (iii) very fertile, supports paddy, jute and sugarcane cultivation.
Q3. Steps to control soil erosion in hilly areas:
Contour ploughing; terrace cultivation; afforestation; strip cropping; building check dams.
Wordpuzzle Answers (NCERT Exercise)
| # | Clue | Answer |
|---|---|---|
| (i) | Natural endowments in the form of land, water, vegetation and minerals | RESOURCES |
| (ii) | A type of non-renewable resource | MINERALS |
| (iii) | Soil with high water retaining capacity | BLACK |
| (iv) | Intensively leached soils of the monsoon climate | LATERITE |
| (v) | Plantation of trees on a large scale to check soil erosion | AFFORESTATION |
| (vi) | The Great Plains of India are made up of these soils | ALLUVIAL |
📝 Practice MCQs – UPSC / State PCS Standard
Q1. Which of the following correctly defines a ‘Resource’ according to NCERT Contemporary India?
- A. Everything available in nature regardless of accessibility
- B. Everything available in the environment that is technologically accessible, economically feasible and culturally acceptable
- C. Only naturally occurring materials that humans have not modified
- D. Any material available in the biosphere used by living organisms
✅ Answer: B | Resources are defined by human perception, technology, and institutional context — not by natural occurrence alone.
Q2. Agenda 21 was adopted at which international event?
- A. Stockholm Conference, 1972
- B. Brundtland Commission, 1987
- C. United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), Rio de Janeiro, 1992
- D. Kyoto Protocol, 1997
✅ Answer: C | Agenda 21 aims at achieving global sustainable development through global co-operation. Every local government must draw its own Local Agenda 21.
Q3. The term ‘Laterite’ is derived from the Latin word ‘later’. What does it mean?
- A. Red
- B. Brick
- C. Hard
- D. Layer
✅ Answer: B | Laterite soil is so named because it can be cut into brick-like blocks used for construction in many parts of peninsular India.
Q4. Which of the following statements about Black Soil is INCORRECT?
- A. It is also known as Regur soil
- B. It is ideal for growing cotton
- C. It is rich in phosphoric content
- D. It develops deep cracks during hot weather
✅ Answer: C | Black soils are generally POOR in phosphoric content. They are rich in calcium carbonate, magnesium, potash and lime.
Q5. ‘Bangar’ and ‘Khadar’ are types of which soil?
- A. Black Soil
- B. Red and Yellow Soil
- C. Alluvial Soil
- D. Laterite Soil
✅ Answer: C | Bangar = old alluvial (higher kanker nodules); Khadar = new alluvial (more fine particles, more fertile).
Q6. In the Chambal basin, gully-eroded lands that are unfit for cultivation are called:
- A. Badlands
- B. Ravines
- C. Alluvial fans
- D. Terai
✅ Answer: B | Running water cuts deep gullies in clayey soil → land called ‘bad land’; in Chambal basin specifically called ravines.
Q7. Which report first introduced the concept of ‘Sustainable Development’?
- A. Club of Rome Report, 1968
- B. Small is Beautiful by Schumacher, 1974
- C. Brundtland Commission Report – Our Common Future, 1987
- D. Agenda 21, 1992
✅ Answer: C | The Brundtland Commission Report (1987) titled ‘Our Common Future’ introduced ‘Sustainable Development’ as a means for resource conservation.
Q8. Consider the following statements about Laterite Soil:
1. It is acidic in nature (pH < 6.0).
2. It is suitable for growing tea and coffee after appropriate soil conservation.
3. Red laterite soils of TN, AP and Kerala are suitable for cashew nut.
Which of the above are correct?
1. It is acidic in nature (pH < 6.0).
2. It is suitable for growing tea and coffee after appropriate soil conservation.
3. Red laterite soils of TN, AP and Kerala are suitable for cashew nut.
Which of the above are correct?
- A. 1 and 2 only
- B. 2 and 3 only
- C. 1, 2 and 3
- D. 1 and 3 only
✅ Answer: C | All three statements are correct as per NCERT.
Q9. Which of the following pairs (State – Resource Abundance) is INCORRECTLY matched?
- A. Jharkhand – Minerals and coal
- B. Arunachal Pradesh – Water resources
- C. Rajasthan – Water resources
- D. Ladakh – Rich cultural heritage
✅ Answer: C | Rajasthan is well-endowed with solar and wind energy but LACKS water resources.
Q10. ‘Strip Cropping’ as a soil conservation method primarily helps in:
- A. Retaining moisture by creating ridges
- B. Reducing gully erosion through check dams
- C. Breaking the force of the wind by growing grass strips between crop rows
- D. Preventing sheet erosion by contour bunding
✅ Answer: C | In strip cropping, large fields are divided into strips and strips of grass are left to grow between crops to break wind force. Shelter belts (rows of trees) work similarly.
