Sex Ratio in India —
NFHS-5, Trends, Causes & 2036 Projections
A comprehensive UPSC guide to sex ratio in India — definition, historical trends (1901–2023), NFHS-5 data (1,020 females per 1,000 males), child sex ratio (919 in 2011, improved to 933-935 by 2023), state-wise variations, factors influencing sex ratio, government initiatives (BBBP, PCPNDT Act, Sukanya Samriddhi, JSY), MMR improvement (97 per 100,000 live births, 2018-20), consequences of skewed ratio, way forward, PYQs, probable questions, and FAQs. All data verified against current sources.
What is Sex Ratio?
The sex ratio in India represents the number of females per 1,000 males in the population. It is one of the key demographic indicators used to measure gender balance, social progress, and health conditions of a society. A balanced sex ratio is vital for equitable development, social stability, and sustainable population growth.
India has long struggled with gender disparities rooted in deep-seated social and cultural preferences for male children. The sex ratio serves as a mirror to gender equity, public health, and the effectiveness of social policy. The gap between the overall sex ratio (which includes the accumulated effect of past births and deaths) and the sex ratio at birth (which reflects current gender bias in reproductive decisions) is a critical analytical distinction for UPSC answers.
Crucially, the child sex ratio (0-6 years) is considered the most sensitive indicator of gender bias — as it is least affected by migration patterns and reflects direct discrimination against female children in terms of sex-selective abortion, infanticide, and differential healthcare. A declining child sex ratio is a warning signal even when the overall sex ratio appears to be improving.
Historical Trends & NFHS-5
Sex Ratio Data
Understanding the trajectory of India's sex ratio across censuses and surveys — and the distinction between different measurement approaches — is essential for UPSC Prelims and Mains answers.
| Year / Source | Overall Sex Ratio | Child Sex Ratio (0-6 yrs) | Key Context |
|---|---|---|---|
| Census 1901 | 972 | — | Baseline — sex ratio has generally declined from this level |
| Census 1951 | 946 | — | Post-independence; partition-related demographic shifts |
| Census 1971 | 930 | — | Green Revolution era; increasing use of ultrasound in subsequent decade |
| Census 1981 | 934 | 962 | Ultrasound technology beginning to spread in India |
| Census 1991 | 929 | 945 | Rapid spread of ultrasound; sex-selective abortion becoming more prevalent |
| Census 2001 | 933 | 927 | PCPNDT Act 1994 passed but enforcement weak; child sex ratio declining |
| Census 2011 | 943 | 919 | PCPNDT Act amended 2003; overall ratio improved but CSR continued falling |
| NFHS-4 (2015-16) | 991 | — | Survey methodology — counts living household members; sex ratio at birth: 896 (record low period) |
| NFHS-5 (2019-21) | 1,020 | 929 | First time overall ratio exceeded 1,000; but sex ratio at birth still below natural level of 950-970 |
| SRS Statistical Report 2023 | ~1,020 | ~933-935 | Sample Registration System estimates; CSR recovering; sex ratio at birth 933 (2022-23) |
| Sex ratio at birth (2022-23) | — | 933 (birth) | Improved 15 points from 918 (2014-15); improved from record low of 896 (2015-17) |
| Projected 2036 (MoSPI) | 952 | — | Women and Men in India 2023 Report; women to form 48.8% of population |
| Projected 2100 | ~977 (102.4 males:100 females) | — | Gradual convergence toward gender parity as fertility rates equalise |
Child Sex Ratio (0-6 Years) —
India's Most Concerning Metric
The child sex ratio (girls per 1,000 boys aged 0-6) is the most important indicator of gender bias at birth — reflecting sex-selective abortion, infanticide, and discriminatory early childhood care. Its decline (927 in 2001 → 919 in 2011) was a major national concern; recent recovery is encouraging but incomplete.
The Declining Trend — Why It Happened
CSR declined from 945 (1991) → 927 (2001) → 919 (2011) — a three-decade fall that alarmed demographers. The primary driver was the spread of ultrasound technology from the 1980s, which enabled cheap, accessible prenatal sex determination — combined with persistent son preference. The availability of sex-selective abortion (even when illegal) created a technology-amplified manifestation of pre-existing gender bias. Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, and western UP — prosperous but intensely patriarchal states — showed the sharpest declines.
Recent Recovery — Cautious Optimism
SRS 2023 data suggests CSR has improved to approximately 933-935. Sex ratio at birth improved from a record low of 896 (2015-17) to 933 (2022-23) — a 37-point improvement over seven years. Haryana — historically India's worst-performing state in child sex ratio — improved from 834 (Census 2011) to 923 (2022) under sustained Beti Bachao Beti Padhao interventions. Rural India now has more women than men in many states — reversing historical patterns.
State-Wise Child Sex Ratio Patterns
Best performers (Census 2011): Chhattisgarh (969), Arunachal Pradesh (972), Meghalaya (970), Mizoram (971), Nagaland (944), Kerala (964). Worst performers (Census 2011): Haryana (834), Punjab (846), Rajasthan (888), UP (899), Delhi (871). Trend states: Haryana's dramatic improvement (834→923) shows that targeted policy intervention can shift even deeply entrenched patterns over a decade. Northwestern states — the "wheat belt" — remain the epicentre of son preference and CSR concern.
Factors Influencing
India's Sex Ratio
Socio-Cultural Son Preference
Deep patriarchal beliefs and inheritance patterns favour male children for economic, social, and religious reasons — sons are expected to perform funeral rites, carry the family name, and support parents in old age. The dowry system makes daughters an economic burden on families. Sex-selective stopping — couples continue having children until they have a son — skews family sex compositions. This cultural factor is the root cause underlying all technological and institutional pathways to gender imbalance.
Female Foeticide & Sex Determination
Widespread access to ultrasound technology from the 1980s enabled prenatal sex determination despite PCPNDT Act 1994. Sex-selective abortions reduced female births sharply — particularly in the "wheat belt" (Haryana, Punjab, Western UP, Rajasthan). In 2020, ultrasound machines were notified as a 'drug' under Drugs and Cosmetics Act — requiring Drug Controller licences for selling/importing. Underground sex determination services persist despite enforcement efforts.
Migration Patterns
Male-dominated labour migration from rural to urban areas skews urban sex ratios downward (fewer women in cities) and elevates rural sex ratios (more women remain in villages). This explains why northern Indian cities like Delhi show very low sex ratios in census data — not because of fewer female births, but because of male-dominated in-migration for construction, manufacturing, and services. Rural India now shows sex ratio above 1,000 in many states.
Health Inequalities
Poor nutrition, limited access to maternal healthcare, and early marriages disproportionately impact female survival rates. Differential childhood healthcare — girls receiving less nutrition, less timely medical care, and less vaccine coverage than boys — contributes to excess female child mortality. Maternal mortality (MMR: 97 per 100,000 live births in 2018-20, down from 556 in 1990) reduces female deaths in reproductive years but remains an important factor in overall sex ratio.
Educational & Economic Gaps
Lower education and employment levels among women reduce empowerment, autonomy, and ability to resist sex-selective decisions. Female literacy improved from 54.16% (2001) to 77.70% (NFHS-5, 2021) — with higher literacy strongly correlated with higher sex ratios (Kerala model). Women's economic independence — through SHGs, employment, property rights — reduces the economic rationale for son preference by making daughters less of a financial liability.
Regional and Cultural Context
Southern states (Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh): higher sex ratios due to better female literacy, healthcare, weaker dowry practices, and partial matrilineal traditions. Northeastern states: traditionally higher sex ratios; matrilineal communities (Khasi, Garo) show near-balanced or female-dominant sex ratios. Northern states (Haryana, Punjab, Delhi): lower sex ratios due to stronger patriarchal structures, agricultural property concentrated in male hands, and intense son preference.
Consequences of a
Skewed Sex Ratio in India
The consequences of a male-dominant sex ratio cascade across marriage, economy, security, and demography — demonstrating that gender imbalance is not merely a women's issue but a societal crisis with broad development implications.
Marriage Squeeze & Trafficking
Shortage of women in northern states leads to delayed marriages, rise in bride trafficking, and 'brides-for-sale' markets. Girls from Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, and northeastern states have been sold as brides to families in Haryana and Punjab — reflecting a commodification of women as a response to the gender gap. Polyandry and bigamy have reportedly increased in the worst-affected villages. This is the most direct and immediate consequence of skewed sex ratios.
Social Instability & Violence Against Women
Gender imbalance correlates with increased violence against women — higher rates of abduction, rape, domestic violence, and harassment in gender-skewed regions. The commodification of women (bride trafficking, dowry harassment) creates a context of exploitation. Northern India states — which have the worst sex ratios — also show high rates of crimes against women (Haryana, UP, Rajasthan consistently rank high in NCRB data on crimes against women).
Labor Market Effects
Reduced female participation in the labour force affects economic growth and productivity. Female LFPR at 40% (2025) — while improving — reflects both economic and social barriers. Women's absence from the workforce represents a massive untapped economic potential: World Bank estimates that closing the gender labour force participation gap could add 1-2% to India's GDP growth annually. The 'missing women' at birth mean fewer women workers, entrepreneurs, and tax contributors over time.
Population Aging & Demographic Instability
Declining female birth rates affect long-term demographic structure — fewer women means slower population growth, which may seem beneficial but creates imbalances in age structure and dependency ratios. The combined effect of a falling TFR (2.0 in 2021, down from 2.3 in 2014) and skewed sex ratio at birth means that India's demographic dividend window is narrowing while gender composition remains imbalanced — creating a complex population challenge for long-term planning.
Health Burden on Women
Women in male-dominant societies face higher health burdens — from reproductive exploitation (forced pregnancies to produce sons), psychological stress (discrimination and violence), and nutritional deprivation (girls fed less in son-preferring families). Maternal malnutrition has intergenerational consequences — malnourished mothers have low-birth-weight babies. India's anaemia rates among women remain high (NFHS-5: 57% of women aged 15-49 are anaemic) — reflecting both nutritional discrimination and its downstream health consequences.
SDG & Development Goal Impact
A skewed sex ratio directly impedes progress on SDG 5 (Gender Equality), SDG 3 (Good Health), SDG 4 (Quality Education), SDG 8 (Decent Work), and SDG 10 (Reduced Inequalities). India's Gender Inequality Index (GII) rank and Global Gender Gap Index (India ranked 129/146 in 2024) reflect systemic gender imbalance of which sex ratio is both a cause and consequence. A balanced sex ratio is a precondition for — and outcome of — genuine human development.
Government Initiatives to
Improve India's Sex Ratio
| Scheme / Act | Year | Objective | Current Data |
|---|---|---|---|
| PCPNDT Act | 1994 (amended 2003) | Prohibits sex determination before birth; bans sex-selective abortion; mandatory registration of all ultrasound centres; strict penalties for violators | 2020: ultrasound machines notified as 'drug' under DCA 1945 — Drug Controller licences mandatory. Sex ratio at birth improved from 896 (2015-17) to 933 (2022-23) — 37-point improvement over 7 years |
| Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (BBBP) | 2015 (launched Panipat) | Prevent gender-biased sex selection; promote survival, protection, and education of girl child; three-ministry collaboration (WCD, Health, Education) | Haryana CSR: 834 (2011) → 923 (2022). National sex ratio at birth: 918 (2014-15) → 933 (2022-23) — 15-point improvement attributed to BBBP. 4.1 crore Sukanya Samriddhi accounts opened |
| Sukanya Samriddhi Yojana | 2015 | Small savings scheme for girl child — high-interest account (7.6% p.a.); financial security and incentive for girl child education; part of BBBP umbrella | 4.1 crore accounts opened; total deposits worth thousands of crores; provides economic argument for valuing girl children |
| Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY) | 2005 | Promotes institutional deliveries through cash incentives to pregnant women and ASHAs; reduces female maternal mortality; targets BPL women in LPS states | Major contributor to MMR reduction: 556 (1990) → 130 (2014-16) → 97 (2018-20). Over 1 crore beneficiaries annually; institutional delivery rate rose to 89% (NFHS-5) |
| PM Surakshit Matritva Abhiyan (PMSMA) | 2016 | Free antenatal care on 9th of every month; specialist doctors at PHCs; focuses on high-risk pregnancies; Extended PMSMA for HRP tracking | Over 5.9 crore pregnant women screened as of March 2025; directly reduces maternal deaths and female mortality |
| POSHAN Abhiyan (POSHAN 2.0) | 2018 | Addresses malnutrition and anaemia among adolescent girls, pregnant women, and mothers; improves overall health indicators contributing to sex ratio balance | Anaemia prevalence among women: NFHS-4 (53%) → NFHS-5 (57%) — slight increase indicating challenge. NFHS-5: 15-49 age women 57% anaemic; child stunting and wasting remain high |
| National Girl Child Day | 2008 | Observed January 24 annually; promotes gender equality and awareness about rights and opportunities of the girl child | Annual awareness campaign; used to announce BBBP targets and Sukanya Samriddhi achievements |
| Scheme for Adolescent Girls (Kishori Yojana) | — | Covers adolescent girls aged 14-18 (previously 11-14); nutritional support, menstrual hygiene, life skills, and career guidance | Complements POSHAN Abhiyan; addresses period of life critical for future reproductive health and empowerment |
Current Events, MMR Progress
& 2036 Projections
These are directly testable in UPSC Mains 2026 — linking sex ratio to MMR improvement, international rankings, SDG progress, and demographic projections.
The sex ratio at birth improved 15 points from 918 (2014-15) to 933 (2022-23) — as reported to Parliament by the Women and Child Development Ministry. This reverses the trend from a record low of approximately 896 in 2015-17. The improvement is directly attributed to: (1) Beti Bachao Beti Padhao campaign awareness and district-level targeting; (2) Stricter PCPNDT Act enforcement — ultrasound machines notified as 'drugs' (2020) requiring Drug Controller licences; (3) Changing social attitudes toward girl children, particularly in previously worst-performing districts.
State highlights: Haryana's child sex ratio improved from 834 (2011) to 923 (2022) — one of India's most dramatic documented improvements. The SRS Statistical Report 2023 estimates the overall child sex ratio at approximately 933-935. The sex ratio at birth remains below the natural range of 950-970 — indicating that while progress is real, sex-selective practices have not been eliminated. NFHS-5 (2019-21) sex ratio at birth: 929; for children born in the last 5 years (from survey date): 929. Under-Five Mortality Rate improved from 45 (2014) to 31 (2021) per 1,000 live births (SRS 2021).
India's Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR) declined to 97 per 100,000 live births (2018-20) — achieving the National Health Policy 2017 target of MMR below 100. This represents an 86% decline from 556 in 1990 — compared to the global reduction of 48% over the same period. India's annual MMR reduction rate of 6.36% outpaces the global rate of 2.07%. The UN-MMEIG Report 2000-2023 records India's MMR declining by 23 points from 2020 to 2023. As of March 2025: over 5.9 crore pregnant women screened under PMSMA.
State performers: Eight states have achieved the SDG target (MMR ≤ 70 per 100,000 live births by 2030): Kerala (19-20), Maharashtra (33-38), Telangana (43-45), Andhra Pradesh (45-46), Tamil Nadu (49-54), Jharkhand (51-56), Gujarat (53-57), Karnataka (63-69). Worst performers: Assam (215), UP/Uttarakhand (192), MP/Chhattisgarh (170). The overall decline directly contributes to improved sex ratio by reducing female deaths in reproductive years. SDG 2030 target: MMR below 70 — achievable at national level but requiring sustained effort in high-burden states (Assam, UP, Rajasthan).
The 'Women and Men in India 2023' report by the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) projects India's sex ratio to improve to 952 females per 1,000 males by 2036. India's population is projected to reach 152.2 crore by 2036, with women forming 48.8% of the total (up from 48.5% in 2011). The male-to-female ratio is projected to decline to 102.4 males per 100 females by 2100 — gradually converging toward gender balance over the coming century.
Drivers of projected improvement: declining TFR (2.0 in 2021); enhanced maternal healthcare (MMR: 97 in 2018-20); rising female literacy (77.70% in 2021, NFHS-5); increased female workforce participation (LFPR rising from ~23% in 2018 to 40% in 2025); sustained PCPNDT enforcement; and BBBP's documented impact on sex ratio at birth. The projection reflects gradual social transformation — but requires sustained policy commitment on education, economic empowerment, and healthcare to be realised.
The National Family Health Survey-5 (NFHS-5, 2019-21) reported India's overall sex ratio at 1,020 females per 1,000 males — for the first time in Indian survey history showing a higher number of females than males, a significant milestone from 991 in NFHS-4 (2015-16). Key NFHS-5 findings: female literacy 77.70% (up from 54.16% in 2001); institutional delivery rate 89% (up from 79% in NFHS-4); sex ratio at birth 929 (improved from 896 record low); contraception use increased; child stunting declining. The global average sex ratio is 984 females per 1,000 males — India's NFHS-5 figure exceeds this, reflecting that many women who were born survive longer due to improved healthcare.
Context and caution: The NFHS sex ratio of 1,020 measures living household members — it reflects improvement in female survival (including older women), not necessarily elimination of gender bias at birth. The sex ratio at birth (929 per NFHS-5) and sex ratio at birth for recent births (933 per SRS 2023) remain below the natural range of 950-970. Census 2027 will provide the next comprehensive official benchmark. Female anaemia remains high at 57% (NFHS-5) despite nutritional programmes — indicating persistent health inequality that POSHAN 2.0 and allied schemes are working to address.
UPSC Mains PYQs —
Sex Ratio in India
These are actual UPSC Mains questions on sex ratio and related themes, with approach notes calibrated to current data (NFHS-5: 1,020; sex ratio at birth: 933; MMR: 97; Haryana CSR: 834→923; 2036 projection: 952).
Despite significant policy interventions, the child sex ratio in India remains a concern. Critically examine the causes of a skewed sex ratio and evaluate the effectiveness of government measures to address it. (UPSC Mains 2023)
Approach: Define — CSR (girls per 1,000 boys, 0-6 years); data: 945 (1991) → 927 (2001) → 919 (2011) → 933-935 (SRS 2023). Causes: son preference (patriarchy, inheritance, dowry); female foeticide via ultrasound (PCPNDT Act 1994 enforcement gaps); differential healthcare; migration; education and economic gaps. Government measures: PCPNDT Act (1994, amended 2003; ultrasound as 'drug' 2020); BBBP (2015) — Haryana 834→923; Sukanya Samriddhi (4.1 crore accounts); JSY (MMR: 97 in 2018-20); PMSMA (5.9 crore screened by March 2025). Critical evaluation: progress real but incomplete; sex ratio at birth (933) still below natural range (950-970); regional disparities persist; PCPNDT enforcement weak in rural areas. Way forward: stricter PCPNDT enforcement; women's economic empowerment; property rights for women; community-level attitudinal change.
Discuss the significance of the Beti Bachao Beti Padhao scheme for improving India's sex ratio. Has it been successful? Critically evaluate. (UPSC Mains 2022)
Approach: BBBP (2015, launched Panipat, Haryana): three-ministry collaboration; initial focus on 100 most gender-critical districts; subsequently expanded nationally. Achievements: sex ratio at birth 918 (2014-15) → 933 (2022-23) — 15-point improvement; Haryana CSR 834 (2011) → 923 (2022); Sukanya Samriddhi 4.1 crore accounts; rising girls' school enrolment (75.51%→78%). Critical evaluation: early CAG report noted 56% of budget spent on media and advertising rather than direct girl child welfare; education and employment gaps remain wide; GGI India: 129/146 (2024); anaemia among women rose 53%→57% (NFHS-4→5). BBBP works best alongside economic empowerment, property rights, and PCPNDT enforcement — it alone cannot transform son preference. Way forward: link BBBP with SHG economic empowerment; conditional cash transfers; inheritance law enforcement for daughters.
Examine the regional variations in sex ratio in India. Why do southern states perform better than northern states? What policy lessons can northern states draw? (UPSC Mains 2020)
Approach: Data: Kerala (1084), Puducherry (1037), Tamil Nadu (996) vs Haryana (879), Delhi (868), Chandigarh (818) — Census 2011. Why southern states perform better: (1) Female literacy — Kerala near-universal, Tamil Nadu 80%+; (2) Matrilineal traditions (Nair community, Kerala; Khasi in NE — female inheritance); (3) Better maternal healthcare — Kerala MMR 19-20 (achieved SDG target); (4) Weaker dowry practices; (5) Higher female workforce participation. Why northern states lag: stronger patriarchy; agricultural land concentrated in male hands; intense dowry burden; 'son preference' deeply ingrained. Policy lessons: women's education first (Kerala model); property and inheritance rights for daughters; enforcement of dowry prohibition; conditional cash transfers for girl child; community-based monitoring. Success story: Haryana (834→923 CSR) through sustained multi-year BBBP intervention.
Discuss the causes and consequences of a skewed sex ratio in India. What measures have been taken to address this issue? (UPSC Mains 2018)
Approach: Causes: son preference (patriarchy, dowry, inheritance); female foeticide (ultrasound + PCPNDT Act enforcement gaps); differential healthcare; migration (male to cities). Historical: 972 (1901) → 933 (2001) → 943 (2011) → 1,020 (NFHS-5 2019-21); CSR: 945 (1991) → 919 (2011) → 933 (SRS 2023). Consequences: marriage squeeze (bride trafficking); violence against women; labour market effects; demographic imbalance; health burden on women. Measures: PCPNDT Act (1994, amended 2003); BBBP (2015); Sukanya Samriddhi; JSY (MMR: 97 per 100,000 lb, 2018-20); PMSMA (5.9 crore screened). Critical evaluation: progress real but child sex ratio still below natural; regional disparities persist. Way forward: economic empowerment of women; property rights; community-level behaviour change; PCPNDT enforcement.
Critically examine the PCPNDT Act 1994 as an instrument for improving India's sex ratio. Has it been effective? What are the enforcement challenges? (UPSC Mains 2016)
Approach: PCPNDT Act 1994 (amended 2003): prohibits sex determination before birth; mandatory registration of ultrasound centres; strict penalties. 2020 amendment: ultrasound as 'drug' — Drug Controller licences required. Effectiveness: sex ratio at birth improved from 896 (2015-17 record low) to 933 (2022-23) — 37-point improvement. Enforcement challenges: underground sex determination services (underground clinics, mobile units); weak monitoring in rural areas; low conviction rates; private sector enforcement difficult; 'quack' operators outside formal registration. Regional gaps: worst-performing states (Haryana, Punjab) show improvement but still below natural levels. Critical evaluation: necessary but not sufficient — requires complementary social interventions. Way forward: community-level monitoring; whistleblower incentives; sex ratio audit of districts; strengthen conviction rates; combine with women's economic empowerment and property rights.
Discuss the relationship between female literacy and sex ratio in India. How does education of women contribute to gender-equitable demographic outcomes? (UPSC Mains 2014)
Approach: Direct relationship: female literacy strongly correlated with higher sex ratios (Kerala 1084 sex ratio + near-universal literacy; Haryana 879 sex ratio + lower female literacy). Female literacy improves sex ratio through: (1) women's agency in reproductive decisions — educated women better able to resist sex-selective pressure; (2) reduced son preference — education reduces economic dependence on sons; (3) delayed marriage — educated women marry later, have fewer children, more decision-making power; (4) healthcare utilisation — literate women seek prenatal care, institutional delivery. Data: female literacy 54.16% (2001) → 77.70% (NFHS-5 2021); NFHS-5 sex ratio 1,020. BBBP link: Beti Bachao + Beti Padhao — the education component directly addresses the literacy-sex ratio nexus. Way forward: girls' hostels in every district (2026 budget); Sukanya Samriddhi; conditional cash transfers for girls' higher education; economic empowerment post-education.
Probable UPSC Mains Questions
on Sex Ratio in India — 2026
Based on current data (NFHS-5: 1,020; sex ratio at birth 933; Haryana CSR 834→923; MMR 97 in 2018-20; MoSPI 2036 projection: 952) — these are high-probability questions for UPSC Mains 2026.
NFHS-5 (2019-21) reported India's sex ratio at 1,020 females per 1,000 males — above the global average of 984 and for the first time showing more females than males. Yet the sex ratio at birth (929-933) remains below the natural range of 950-970. Critically examine what these two numbers together tell us about gender equity in India.
Expected: 15 Marks · 250 Words · Very High Probability
The sex ratio at birth improved from 918 (2014-15) to 933 (2022-23) — a 15-point improvement attributed to Beti Bachao Beti Padhao. Haryana's child sex ratio improved from 834 (2011) to 923 (2022). Critically evaluate the BBBP scheme — its achievements, limitations, and the way forward for achieving a balanced sex ratio.
Expected: 15 Marks · 250 Words · Very High Probability
India's MMR declined from 556 (1990) to 97 (2018-20) — an 86% decline outpacing the global reduction of 48% over the same period. Eight states have already achieved the SDG 2030 target of MMR below 70. Critically examine the drivers of this success and the challenges remaining for states like Assam (MMR 215) and UP (192).
Expected: 10–15 Marks · High Probability
Kerala's sex ratio (1084 per Census 2011) contrasts sharply with Haryana (879) and Delhi (868). Critically examine the socio-economic, cultural, and governance factors that explain this regional variation in sex ratio and suggest policy measures that high-performing states can share with low-performing ones.
Expected: 15 Marks · 250 Words · High Probability
The shortage of women in parts of northern India has led to bride trafficking from eastern states, delayed marriages, and rising violence against women. Critically examine the social and developmental consequences of a male-dominant sex ratio and the policy measures needed to address these downstream effects.
Expected: 15 Marks · 250 Words · High Probability
The PCPNDT Act 1994 bans sex determination before birth, and in 2020, ultrasound machines were notified as drugs requiring Drug Controller licences. Despite this, sex-selective practices persist. Critically examine the PCPNDT Act's enforcement challenges and suggest institutional reforms for stronger implementation.
Expected: 10–15 Marks · Moderate-High Probability
The MoSPI 'Women and Men in India 2023' report projects India's sex ratio to reach 952 by 2036 and women to form 48.8% of the population. Critically examine the demographic, social, and policy factors that will determine whether this projection is achieved.
Expected: 10 Marks · Moderate Probability
Female literacy improved from 54.16% (Census 2001) to 77.70% (NFHS-5 2021), and Kerala — with near-universal female literacy — consistently records India's highest sex ratio (1084). Critically examine the relationship between female literacy, economic empowerment, and improvement in India's sex ratio.
Expected: 10–15 Marks · Moderate Probability
India's child sex ratio declined from 945 (1991) to 919 (2011) — despite overall sex ratio improvement — indicating persistent son preference at the birth-planning stage. What explains this paradox and what combination of measures is most effective in reversing CSR decline?
Expected: 10–15 Marks · Moderate Probability
A balanced sex ratio is both a prerequisite for and an outcome of achieving SDG 5 (Gender Equality) and SDG 3 (Good Health). Critically examine how India's progress on sex ratio links to its SDG commitments and what additional interventions are needed to meet 2030 targets.
Expected: 10 Marks · Moderate Probability
FAQs — Sex Ratio in India
for UPSC Preparation
These questions target the most common Google searches by UPSC aspirants on this topic — each answer written for exam depth and Google featured-snippet eligibility.
- Census 2011: 943 females per 1,000 males
- NFHS-5 (2019-21): 1,020 females per 1,000 males — first time showing more females than males
- SRS Statistical Report 2023: approximately 1,020 females per 1,000 males
- Sex ratio at birth (2022-23): 933 females per 1,000 males — improved 15 points from 918 in 2014-15
- 2025 estimate: approximately 1.44 billion total population with ~743 million men and ~698 million women (gap of ~45 million men)
- 1991: 945 → 2001: 927 → 2011: 919 (Census data — declining trend)
- SRS 2023: approximately 933-935 (recovering)
- NFHS-5 (2019-21): sex ratio at birth 929
- Sex ratio at birth (2022-23): 933 — improved from record low of 896 (2015-17)
- Son preference: patriarchal inheritance, dowry system, religious (last rites) — makes daughters economic burden and sons economic asset
- Female foeticide: ultrasound technology enables prenatal sex determination; sex-selective abortion despite PCPNDT Act 1994
- Migration: male-dominated urban labour migration skews city sex ratios downward; elevates rural ratios
- Health inequalities: differential nutrition and healthcare for girls; maternal mortality (MMR: 97 in 2018-20)
- Educational and economic gaps: lower female literacy (54.16% in 2001 → 77.70% in 2021) and economic dependence reinforce son preference
- Cultural context: northern states (patrilineal, strong dowry) show lower ratios; southern states (better literacy, matrilineal traditions) show higher ratios
- Highest sex ratios: Kerala (1084), Puducherry (1037), Tamil Nadu (996), Andhra Pradesh (993), Chhattisgarh (991)
- Lowest sex ratios: Chandigarh (818), Delhi (868), Haryana (879), Sikkim (890), Punjab (895)
- Pattern: Southern and northeastern states better (female literacy, healthcare, weaker dowry, matrilineal traditions); Northern states worse (patriarchy, agricultural male-inheritance, strong dowry)
- Child sex ratio (CSR): Chhattisgarh (969), Kerala (964) best; Haryana (834), Punjab (846) worst — though Haryana improved to 923 by 2022
- Rural vs urban: Rural India now has sex ratio above 1,000 in many states (male out-migration); cities like Delhi show lower ratios due to male in-migration
- Marriage squeeze: shortage of women leads to delayed marriages; bride trafficking from Bihar, Jharkhand, NE states to Haryana/Punjab villages; rise in polyandry
- Violence against women: gender imbalance correlates with higher rates of abduction, rape, trafficking, domestic violence
- Economic loss: reduced female LFPR (40% in 2025 — large gender gap); 'missing women' represent untapped economic potential; World Bank estimates closing LFPR gender gap adds 1-2% to GDP
- Demographic instability: declining female birth rates affect long-term age structure and dependency ratios
- Health burden: women face reproductive exploitation, malnutrition (57% anaemia NFHS-5), psychological stress
- SDG impact: impedes progress on SDG 5 (Gender Equality), SDG 3 (Good Health), SDG 8 (Decent Work)
- SDG 5 (Gender Equality): balanced sex ratio is a precondition for and outcome of gender equality; women's parliamentary representation at 33% (Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam 2023)
- SDG 3 (Good Health): MMR (97 in 2018-20), infant mortality (U5MR: 31 per 1,000 live births in 2021), female anaemia (57% NFHS-5)
- SDG 4 (Quality Education): female literacy 77.70% (NFHS-5 2021); girls' school enrolment 78% (2023-24)
- SDG 8 (Decent Work): female LFPR 40% (2025); 69% of MUDRA loans to women; Lakhpati Didi — 2 crore women SHG members earning Rs 1L+
- SDG 10 (Reduced Inequalities): regional sex ratio disparities reflect structural inequalities
Want structured GS I & II coverage
including Sex Ratio in India?
Join Legacy IAS Regular Batch — Bangalore
Sex Ratio — NFHS-5 data (1,020), child sex ratio (919→933), sex ratio at birth (933, 2022-23), MMR (97 in 2018-20 — 86% decline since 1990), Haryana improvement (834→923), BBBP, PCPNDT Act, Sukanya Samriddhi, MoSPI 2036 projection (952) — fully covered with PYQ-based discussion and mentor-guided answer writing. Limited to 40 students.
96069 00005Mon – Sat · 9 AM – 6 PM · Seats limited to 40
