📋 What’s Inside
- Wildlife Mitigation — Eco-Bridges / Eco-Ducts
- Quarantine Centres to Check Invasive Species
- Preservation of Western & Eastern Ghats
- Historic Citizen Movements — Bishnoi, Chipko, Appiko, Silent Valley, Narmada, Save Western Ghats
- UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) — All 3 Protocols
- CBD COP History
- Kunming-Montreal GBF — 4 Goals, 23 Targets, 30×30
- COP16 Cali 2024 — Current Affairs
- World Heritage Sites
- Man and Biosphere (MAB) Programme
- UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration (2021–2030)
- GPFLR · UN Strategic Plan for Forests · BIOFIN
- Practice MCQs
- UPSC Prelims PYQs
- FAQ
Eco-Bridges
Wildlife crossing
Movements
Chipko, Bishnoi…
CBD
Rio + Protocols
GBF 30×30
2030 targets
COP16 2024
Cali Fund
World Heritage
UNESCO sites
MAB
Biosphere reserves
UN Decade
2021–2030
Wildlife Mitigation Measures — Eco-Bridges & Eco-Ducts
💡 Think of Eco-Bridges as Wildlife Flyovers
Just as humans build flyovers to avoid traffic jams on roads, we build eco-bridges so wildlife doesn’t have to face the deadly traffic on highways. A tiger can’t read a “No Entry” sign — but it can use a tunnel built under the highway. Eco-bridges restore the connectivity that roads and railways destroy. They are, in a sense, wildlife’s own infrastructure.
Eco-bridges (also called eco-ducts, wildlife crossings, or green bridges) are structures built over or under roads, highways, railways, and other human infrastructure to allow wildlife to safely move between habitat patches on either side. They restore habitat connectivity — allowing animals to migrate, find mates, access food, and maintain gene flow without being killed by vehicles. They address one of the most critical problems in conservation: habitat fragmentation.
Canopy Bridges
Rope or metal bridges above the road for arboreal (tree-dwelling) species — monkeys, squirrels, flying squirrels. Allows them to cross without touching the ground or road.
Concrete Underpasses / Viaducts
Tunnels or elevated road sections allowing large animals (tigers, elephants, leopards, deer) to pass safely below or above the road. Most common type in India.
Amphibian Tunnels / Culverts
Small tunnels at ground level for amphibians, reptiles, and smaller mammals. Critical for frogs, turtles, and other species that migrate but cannot survive vehicle crossings.
Overpass / Green Bridge
An entire bridge built over a road, covered with soil, plants, and vegetation — looks like a natural landscape patch. Most expensive but most effective for all species.
🔑 Eco-Bridges in India — Key Examples
- Kanha–Pench Corridor (NH 44): Nine animal underpasses (viaducts) were built beneath NH 44 (India’s longest highway — Srinagar to Kanyakumari) between the Kanha and Pench Tiger Reserves. This corridor is one of the four most viable tiger habitats in India — the others being Western Ghats, Corbett, and Kaziranga.
- Ramnagar (Uttarakhand): India’s first eco-bridge specifically designed for reptiles and smaller mammals — built by the Ramnagar Forest Division, Nainital district.
- Bandipur–Wayanad Corridor: Demands for wildlife underpasses on the Mysuru–Wayanad NH to protect tigers in Bandipur WLS — one of the most discussed wildlife-highway conflicts in India.
- Western Ghats: Multiple wildlife corridors and underpasses being developed along roads cutting through the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve — one of the most fragmented wildlife landscapes in India.
🔑 Why Eco-Bridges Matter — The Science
- Prevent roadkill: India’s expanding road network kills hundreds of animals every year — from snakes and frogs to deer and leopards.
- Maintain gene flow: When populations of tigers or elephants are isolated by roads, inbreeding occurs over generations. Eco-bridges allow genetic exchange between isolated groups, maintaining population health.
- Enable migration: Many species migrate seasonally. Blocked migration routes mean animals cannot access food, water, or mates in different seasons.
- Reduce human-wildlife conflict: When animals can’t use their natural corridors, they move into human settlements — increasing conflict. Eco-bridges redirect them.
- Barrier effect of roads: Even when animals are not killed, roads create a psychological barrier — many animals won’t cross an open road. Underpasses disguised with vegetation help overcome this.
Eco-bridges have been asked in UPSC Mains in context of wildlife conservation and infrastructure conflict. Key concepts: Habitat fragmentation → isolation → inbreeding → local extinction. Eco-bridges restore connectivity — addressing all four steps. Connect to: NTCA (National Tiger Conservation Authority), Wildlife Institute of India (WII), Project Tiger, and India’s Linear Infrastructure Policy requiring wildlife mitigation measures for all major projects through protected area land.
Quarantine Centres to Check Invasive Species
Invasive Alien Species (IAS) are species introduced (intentionally or accidentally) to areas outside their natural range that cause ecological or economic harm. They are the second biggest cause of biodiversity loss globally after habitat destruction. Quarantine centres at ports, airports, and border crossings inspect imports of plants, animals, and soil — preventing IAS from entering a country through trade and travel.
🔑 Key Points — Invasive Species & Quarantine
- India’s Plant Quarantine (Regulation of Import into India) Order, 2003 regulates the import of plants and plant material to prevent entry of pests and invasive species.
- Biosafety clearing is required for all plant imports — checking for diseases, pests, and potential invasiveness.
- The National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR) runs quarantine laboratories at ports and airports.
- CBD COP16 (2024) adopted guidelines on managing Invasive Alien Species — including establishing databases, improving cross-border trade regulations, and coordinating with e-commerce platforms that may inadvertently facilitate IAS spread.
- IUCN has a global IAS database listing the world’s 100 most harmful invasive species.
Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) — covers lakes, depletes oxygen. Severe problem in Loktak, Dal, Vembanad. Lantana camara — invasive shrub covering forest floors in Indian forests, preventing native plant regeneration. Affects Bandipur, Sariska. Prosopis juliflora — invasive thorny shrub in arid regions and Tamil Nadu mangroves. Parthenium hysterophorus (Congress grass) — affects agricultural biodiversity and human health. Common Carp — introduced fish that outcompetes native fish in many Indian water bodies. Suckermouth armoured catfish (Pterygoplichthys) — invasive fish threatening Ganga, Yamuna fish populations.
Preservation of Western & Eastern Ghats
🔑 Western Ghats — Biodiversity Hotspot
- One of the world’s 8 “hottest” biodiversity hotspots — recognised by Conservation International.
- UNESCO World Heritage Site (2012) — for its outstanding universal ecological and biological value.
- Stretches ~1,600 km along India’s west coast through Kerala, Karnataka, Goa, Maharashtra, Gujarat, TN — spanning 160,000 sq km.
- Home to 5,000+ flowering plants, 139 mammal species, 508 bird species, 179 amphibian species — most found nowhere else on Earth.
- Gadgil Committee Report (2011) — recommended classifying 64% of the Western Ghats as Ecologically Sensitive Area (ESA). Significantly diluted in implementation.
- Kasturirangan Committee Report (2013) — recommended ESA status for 37% of the Ghats (64,000 sq km). More politically acceptable but still contested by states.
- Major threats: mining, tourism, linear infrastructure, urbanisation, invasive species (Lantana), plantation agriculture (coffee, tea).
- The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (covering TN, Kerala, Karnataka) is the core conservation area — first Biosphere Reserve in India (1986).
🔑 Eastern Ghats — Lesser Known but Critical
- A discontinuous chain of hills stretching ~1,750 km through Odisha, AP, TN, and partly Chhattisgarh.
- NOT a UNESCO WHS or officially recognised hotspot, but ecologically significant — connecting the Western Ghats with the central Indian landscape.
- Rich in tribal communities (Kondhs, Savaras, Gadabas) with deep traditional ecological knowledge.
- Key protected areas: Papikonda NP (AP), Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam TR (world’s largest tiger reserve by area), Simlipal BR (Odisha).
- Faces severe pressure from mining (bauxite, iron ore — areas like Niyamgiri Hills), deforestation, and large development projects.
- The Niyamgiri Hills case (Vedanta vs Kondh tribe) is a landmark in tribal rights vs mining — Supreme Court ruled in favour of the tribal community’s right to decide (2013).
Historic Citizen Movements to Conserve Biodiversity
Citizen movements demonstrate that biodiversity conservation is not just a government function — it is a people’s movement. UPSC asks about these both in Prelims (dates, leaders, locations) and Mains (analyze the significance, what they achieved, how they inspired each other). Know each movement’s: Where? When? Who? What was at stake? What did they achieve?
Bishnoi Movement
- Where: Khejarli village, Marwar (Jodhpur), Rajasthan.
- What: The Maharaja of Jodhpur ordered trees to be cut for fuel to burn lime for his new palace. Amrita Devi of the Bishnoi community led 363 villagers (men, women, children) to hug the trees — all 363 were killed by soldiers.
- Outcome: The Maharaja, moved by the sacrifice, issued a royal decree protecting trees and wildlife in Bishnoi territory — possibly India’s first wildlife protection order.
- Legacy: Inspired the Chipko movement 240 years later. The Bishnoi community continues to protect blackbucks, peacocks, and Khejri trees (Prosopis cineraria) today.
Chipko Movement
- Where: Mandal village, Alaknanda catchment, Garhwal Himalayas (then UP, now Uttarakhand).
- What: Government gave a contractor rights to cut trees for sports goods. Villagers hugged the trees — refusing to let loggers cut them. Women led by Gaura Devi were the first defenders. Leaders: Sunderlal Bahuguna (gave it national visibility) and Chandi Prasad Bhatt.
- Why then: Major flood of 1970 in Alaknanda river had shown that deforestation was causing floods — villagers understood the forest-flood connection.
- Outcome: Triggered a 15-year ban on tree felling in the Himalayan region — announced by PM Indira Gandhi. Led to the Forest Conservation Act 1980.
- Legacy: Gave the world the iconic image of tree-hugging as environmental protest. Inspired movements worldwide. Both Bahuguna and Bhatt awarded Padma Bhushan.
Appiko Movement
- Where: Saklani village, Sirsi, Western Ghats, Uttara Kannada district, Karnataka.
- What: Commercial logging contractors were felling green trees in Western Ghats forests. Villagers hugged trees to stop logging — “Appiko” means “embrace” in Kannada.
- Leader: Panduranga Hegde — inspired by Chipko. Lasted 38 days before the government withdrew the felling order.
- Outcome: Ban on commercial felling in Kalse forests. Movement expanded into the Save the Western Ghats campaign. Promoted 3-R strategy: reduce consumption, restore degraded forests, rational use of resources.
- Connection: Directly led to the Save the Western Ghats Movement.
Silent Valley Movement
- Where: Silent Valley, Palakkad district, Kerala — a tropical evergreen forest rich in biodiversity.
- What: Kerala State Electricity Board proposed a hydroelectric dam on the Kunthipuzha River — which would have submerged 8.3 sq km of pristine tropical evergreen forest.
- Why critical: Silent Valley is the only undisturbed tropical evergreen forest in India — home to the endangered Lion-tailed Macaque and hundreds of endemic species.
- Leaders: Ecologist M.K. Prasad, poet Sugathakumari (“Save the Silent Valley” poem became the movement’s anthem), ornithologist Dr. Salim Ali.
- Outcome: PM Indira Gandhi cancelled the dam project in 1980. Silent Valley National Park declared in 1985. First major victory against a dam for environmental reasons in India.
Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA)
- Where: Narmada valley — across MP, Gujarat, Maharashtra.
- What: Resistance to the Sardar Sarovar and other dams on the Narmada River — which displaced hundreds of thousands of tribal communities and destroyed unique forest biodiversity.
- Leader: Medha Patkar (human rights and environmental activist). Gained international attention, including from Arundhati Roy’s “Greater Common Good.”
- Outcome: World Bank withdrew funding in 1993 after an independent review found serious environmental and human rights violations. Movement led to stronger Resettlement and Rehabilitation policies in India. Dam construction was ultimately allowed by Supreme Court (1999) but with conditions.
Save the Western Ghats Movement
- Where: Entire Western Ghats — Kerala, Karnataka, Goa, Maharashtra, TN.
- What: A coalition of 150+ organisations marched the entire length of the Western Ghats (1987–88) to raise awareness about mining, deforestation, and development threats to the biodiversity hotspot. Called the “Paschim Ghats Bachao Padyatra.”
- Grew from: Appiko Movement. Inspired by the success of grassroots action.
- Outcome: Led to greater political consciousness about Western Ghats conservation. Contributed to pressure for the UNESCO WHS designation (2012) and the Gadgil and Kasturirangan Committee reports.
| Movement | Year | Location | Leader(s) | Trigger | Key Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bishnoi Movement | 1730 | Khejarli, Rajasthan | Amrita Devi | Tree felling for palace construction | Royal decree protecting trees & wildlife; 363 martyrs |
| Chipko Movement | 1973 | Garhwal, Uttarakhand | Gaura Devi, Sunderlal Bahuguna, Chandi Prasad Bhatt | Commercial tree felling for sports goods | 15-year ban on tree felling in Himalayan region; Forest Conservation Act 1980 |
| Silent Valley | 1973–1985 | Palakkad, Kerala | M.K. Prasad, Sugathakumari, Dr. Salim Ali | Hydroelectric dam on Kunthipuzha River | Dam cancelled; Silent Valley NP declared 1985 |
| Appiko Movement | 1983 | Sirsi, Karnataka | Panduranga Hegde | Commercial logging in Western Ghats | Felling stopped; Save Western Ghats campaign launched |
| Narmada Bachao | 1985 | MP, Gujarat, MH | Medha Patkar | Sardar Sarovar Dam displacement | World Bank withdrawal 1993; stronger R&R policies |
| Save Western Ghats | 1986 | Western Ghats (5 states) | 150+ organisations | Mining, logging, development threats | UNESCO WHS 2012; Gadgil & Kasturirangan reports |
⭐ Movements — UPSC Must-Know Facts
- First environmental movement in India: Bishnoi (1730, Rajasthan)
- Chipko = hug trees | “Appiko” (Kannada) = embrace/hug = South India’s Chipko
- Chipko leaders: Gaura Devi (started hugging trees), Sunderlal Bahuguna (gave it national visibility), Chandi Prasad Bhatt
- Silent Valley — first major dam cancellation for environmental reasons in India. Lion-tailed Macaque saved.
- Narmada Bachao — Medha Patkar | World Bank withdrew 1993 | Arundhati Roy wrote about it
- Chipko inspired: Forest Conservation Act 1980 (one of India’s most important forest laws)
UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is an international treaty adopted at the Rio Earth Summit (UN Conference on Environment and Development, UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, on 5 June 1992. It came into force on 29 December 1993. The CBD is a legally binding treaty with three main objectives.
🔑 Three Objectives of CBD
- 🌿 Conservation of biological diversity — protect ecosystems, species, and genetic resources.
- ♻️ Sustainable use of biodiversity — use without depleting, for present and future generations.
- 💰 Fair and equitable sharing of benefits from the use of genetic resources (ABS — Access and Benefit Sharing).
- Secretariat: Montreal, Canada.
- Parties: 196 countries + European Union.
- USA has NOT ratified the CBD — the only major UN member state not party to it.
- International Day for Biological Diversity: 22 May (the date CBD text was adopted).
- Governing body: Conference of Parties (COP) — meets biennially (every 2 years).
- Related at Rio: CBD, UNFCCC (climate), and UNCCD (desertification) — the “Rio Conventions” — were all established at the 1992 Rio Earth Summit.
Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (2003)
Ensures the safe handling, transport, and use of Living Modified Organisms (LMOs / GMOs) resulting from modern biotechnology. Protects biodiversity from potential risks of genetically modified organisms crossing national borders. Named after Cartagena, Colombia — but adopted in Montreal. India is a party.
Nagoya Protocol on ABS (2014)
Ensures fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources (plants, animals, microorganisms). The “user” (pharmaceutical company, biotech firm) must share benefits with the “provider” (country where the resource was found). India’s Biological Diversity Act 2002 operationalises this. Named after Nagoya, Japan where it was adopted in 2010; came into force 2014.
Kunming-Montreal GBF (Not a protocol — Global Strategy)
Adopted at COP15 (Montreal, 2022). Replaced the Aichi Biodiversity Targets (2011–2020) — none of which were achieved. Sets 4 goals for 2050 and 23 targets for 2030. The GBF is the current global blueprint for biodiversity action. See Section 6 below.
Key facts tested directly: CBD = Rio 1992 = came into force 1993 = USA not a party. Three objectives = Conservation + Sustainable use + Benefit sharing (ABS). Cartagena = GMO safety. Nagoya = Genetic resource benefit sharing. International Biodiversity Day = 22 May. UPSC also connects CBD to India’s Biological Diversity Act 2002 (domestic implementation) and National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) in Chennai.
CBD COP History — Key Milestones
CBD adopted at Rio Earth Summit
5 June 1992. Brazil. Also: UNFCCC and UNCCD adopted at same summit — the “Rio Conventions.” CBD came into force 29 December 1993. First COP held in Nassau, Bahamas, in 1994.
Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety
COP5 related. Adopted 2000 in Montreal; came into force 2003. Governs transboundary movement of LMOs/GMOs.
Aichi Biodiversity Targets (2010–2020) & Nagoya Protocol
COP10 in Nagoya, Japan (2010). Adopted 20 Aichi Biodiversity Targets for 2020 — including Target 11 (protect 17% of land and 10% of ocean by 2020). Also adopted the Nagoya Protocol on ABS (came into force 2014). All 20 Aichi targets were missed by 2020.
Kunming-Montreal GBF Adopted (December 2022)
COP15 held in two parts: Kunming, China (online, 2021) and Montreal, Canada (in-person, December 2022). Adopted the landmark Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework — 4 goals for 2050 and 23 targets for 2030. Replaced failed Aichi targets. Chaired by China, hosted by Canada.
COP16 Cali, Colombia (October–November 2024) — Current Affairs
Held 21 October–2 November 2024 in Cali, Colombia. Called the “People’s COP.” Key outcomes: Cali Fund for DSI; Article 8(j) new subsidiary body for indigenous peoples. Suspended without finance agreement — resumed in Rome, February 2025. See Section 7.
Next: COP17 Yerevan, Armenia (2026)
First global review of GBF implementation. 125 countries have already submitted 7th National Reports. India required to submit national biodiversity report by February 2026.
Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) 2022
- Adopted: COP15, Montreal, Canada, December 19, 2022
- Chaired by: China | Hosted by: Canada
- Replaces: Aichi Biodiversity Targets (2011–2020) — all of which were missed
- Structure: 4 Goals for 2050 + 23 Targets for 2030
- Vision: “Living in harmony with nature by 2050”
- Finance gap to close: $700 billion per year
Ecosystem Integrity
Halt human-induced extinction of threatened species. Maintain and restore genetic diversity. Ensure ecosystems remain resilient.
Sustainable Use
Sustainably manage and use biodiversity — ensuring its contribution to people’s well-being, food security, and livelihoods.
Benefit Sharing (ABS)
Fair and equitable sharing of benefits from use of genetic resources, including from Digital Sequence Information (DSI).
Finance & Implementation
Ensure adequate means of implementation — $700 billion/year biodiversity finance gap closed. Align financial flows with the GBF.
🔑 Key Targets for 2030 — UPSC Focus
- Target 1 (30×30 for Land): Protect and manage at least 30% of world’s land, freshwater, and coastal areas by 2030. Currently: 17.5% of land and 8.4% of marine areas protected.
- Target 2 (Restore 30%): Have restoration underway or completed on at least 30% of degraded terrestrial, inland water, coastal and marine ecosystems by 2030.
- Target 3 (Species Recovery): Halt human-induced extinction; maintain and restore populations of wild species.
- Target 4 (Finance): Mobilise at least $200 billion per year from all sources for biodiversity. Provide at least $20 billion/year to developing countries by 2025 and $30 billion/year by 2030.
- Target 5 (Harmful subsidies): Reduce harmful incentives (subsidies damaging biodiversity) by at least $500 billion per year by 2030.
- Target 15 (Business): Companies to monitor, assess, and disclose their risks, dependencies, and impacts on biodiversity.
⭐ GBF — UPSC Must-Know
- GBF = adopted COP15, Montreal, Dec 2022 | Chaired by China, hosted by Canada
- Replaces: Aichi Biodiversity Targets (2011–2020) — all 20 missed
- Most famous target: 30×30 — protect 30% of land and sea by 2030
- Finance: mobilise $200 billion/year | gap of $700 billion/year
- Vision: “Living in harmony with nature by 2050”
- Supplemented by: Cali Fund (DSI benefit sharing, COP16 2024)
COP16 — Cali, Colombia, October–November 2024 Current Affairs
- Location: Cali, Colombia (Valle del Pacífico) — 21 October to 2 November 2024
- President: Susana Muhamad, Colombia’s Environment Minister
- Theme: “Peace with Nature” — called the “People’s COP” (La COP de la gente)
- Status: Suspended on 2 November without quorum for some last items. Resumed in Rome, Italy, 25–27 February 2025 (COP16.2).
- 119 countries submitted national biodiversity targets; 44 countries submitted full NBSAPs.
🔑 COP16 — What Was Achieved
- 🏆 Cali Fund established — a new global mechanism for fair and equitable sharing of benefits from Digital Sequence Information (DSI) on genetic resources. Companies using genetic data (pharmaceutical, biotech, agriculture industries) must contribute. At least 50% of funds go to Indigenous Peoples and local communities. Major win for developing countries — addresses “biopiracy.”
- 🌍 Article 8(j) — New Subsidiary Body for Indigenous Peoples: A permanent body created to embed the knowledge and role of indigenous peoples and local communities (and Afro-descendant communities) in all CBD decisions. Expanded role beyond temporary consultation. Called a “historic win” by indigenous representatives.
- 🌊 EBSAs: New mechanisms to identify Ecologically or Biologically Significant Marine Areas (EBSAs) — step toward 30×30 ocean target.
- 🤝 Invasive Species Guidelines: Adopted guidelines on managing invasive alien species including better databases and e-commerce platform coordination.
- 💊 Biodiversity and Health Action Plan: Recognised the links between biodiversity, ecosystems, and human and animal health (One Health approach).
- 🇨🇳 Kunming Biodiversity Fund (KBF): China launched a $200 million fund to support GBF implementation in developing countries.
🔑 COP16 — What Was Not Achieved / Criticism
- ❌ Failed to adopt a Resource Mobilisation Strategy — the plan to raise $200 billion/year by 2030 was deferred to the Rome resumed session (COP16.2).
- ❌ Only $407 million pledged to the Global Biodiversity Framework Fund (GBFF) — far short of the $20 billion/year target by 2025.
- ❌ Monitoring Framework: Countries could not agree on how to track progress toward the 23 GBF targets.
- ❌ Only 25% of parties submitted NBSAPs before the deadline — showing weak national-level implementation.
- ✅ Rome 2025 (COP16.2): In the resumed session (February 2025), countries agreed on a Resource Mobilisation Strategy targeting $200 billion/year by 2030 and approved a monitoring framework.
COP16 is a high-priority current affairs topic for UPSC 2026. Key facts: COP16 = Cali, Colombia, October 2024 = “People’s COP”. Two outcomes: (1) Cali Fund (DSI benefit sharing — addresses biopiracy). (2) New permanent body for indigenous peoples (Article 8(j)). Resumed in Rome (Feb 2025) for finance agreement. Next COP17 = Yerevan, Armenia, October 2026. India submitted national biodiversity targets at COP16. Connect to: Nagoya Protocol (ABS), DSI (Digital Sequence Information), biopiracy, indigenous rights.
World Heritage Sites (UNESCO)
A UNESCO World Heritage Site is a landmark or area recognised as having outstanding universal value to humanity. They are protected under the World Heritage Convention (1972) — adopted by UNESCO. Sites can be: Cultural (monuments, historic cities), Natural (exceptional natural beauty, biodiversity, geology), or Mixed (both cultural and natural).
🔑 Key Facts — World Heritage Sites
- World Heritage Convention adopted: 1972 (UNESCO, Paris).
- Total WHS globally: 1,200+ in 168 countries.
- Country with most WHS: Italy (58) closely followed by China.
- India has 42 World Heritage Sites — 34 Cultural, 7 Natural, 1 Mixed.
- Natural WHS in India: Kaziranga NP (Assam), Manas WLS (Assam), Sundarbans NP (WB), Nanda Devi & Valley of Flowers NPs (Uttarakhand), Western Ghats (TN, Kerala, Karnataka, Goa, MH), Great Himalayan NP (HP), Khangchendzonga NP (Sikkim — mixed).
- Danger List: Sites facing threats that could destroy their universal value. Manas WLS (Assam) was on the Danger List (1992–2011) due to civil unrest — removed after recovery.
- World Heritage Fund: Provides financial assistance for conservation of WHS.
WHS is tested in UPSC mainly through matching pairs of sites with their states or features. Key natural WHS: Western Ghats WHS (2012) — this is a transboundary site across 6 states. Sundarbans = WHS + Ramsar + Biosphere Reserve + Tiger Reserve — the most “multi-designated” site in India. Manas = WHS + Ramsar + Tiger Reserve + Biosphere Reserve in Assam. WHS listing under: World Heritage Convention 1972 — NOT under the CBD.
Man and Biosphere (MAB) Programme
The Man and Biosphere (MAB) Programme is an intergovernmental scientific programme launched by UNESCO in 1971 to establish a scientific basis for the conservation of biodiversity and the sustainable use of natural resources. It creates a global network of Biosphere Reserves — learning sites for sustainable development. MAB combines natural and social sciences, economics, and education to improve human livelihoods and safeguard ecosystems.
🔑 Key Facts — MAB Programme
- Launched: UNESCO, 1971 (same year as Ramsar Convention).
- Global Biosphere Reserve network: 748 reserves in 134 countries (including 23 transboundary sites).
- Managed by: International Co-ordinating Council (ICC) of UNESCO’s MAB Programme.
- India: 18 Biosphere Reserves; 12 in UNESCO World Network. Latest UNESCO-listed: Panna (Madhya Pradesh).
- First BR globally designated: 1979. India’s first: Nilgiri (1986).
- Core concept: Conservation of biodiversity TOGETHER with socioeconomic development of local communities — the 3-zone model (Core-Buffer-Transition).
- MAB uses BRs as “living laboratories” for research, monitoring, training, and education on sustainable development.
- Transboundary Biosphere Reserves — shared between two or more countries. Example: Western Ghats complex can be considered in the context of transboundary biodiversity corridors with Sri Lanka.
UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration (2021–2030) Current Affairs
The United Nations Decade on Ecosystem Restoration 2021–2030 is a global initiative to prevent, halt, and reverse the degradation of ecosystems worldwide. It is led by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). The Decade runs from 2021 to 2030 — to align with the Sustainable Development Goals deadline and the CBD’s 2030 targets.
🔑 Key Facts
- Proclaimed by the UN General Assembly in March 2019.
- Led by: UNEP + FAO jointly.
- Goal: Restore 30% of degraded terrestrial, freshwater, and marine ecosystems by 2030 — aligned with GBF Target 2 (30×30 for restoration).
- Covers: forests, croplands, grasslands, rivers, wetlands, peatlands, coastal areas, and marine ecosystems.
- World Restoration Flagships: Governments can apply for recognition of their large-scale restoration projects as UN Flagships under the Decade.
- India’s contributions: MISHTI (mangroves), Bonn Challenge (26 million ha by 2030), Green India Mission, NPCA (wetlands), CAMPA afforestation.
- World Environment Day (5 June 2021) launched the Decade — chose the slogan “Reimagine. Recreate. Restore.”
- Economic case: Every dollar invested in ecosystem restoration yields an estimated $9–30 in economic returns (FAO/UNEP estimates).
The CBD COP16 in Cali directly reinforced the UN Decade — the GBF’s Target 2 (restore 30% of degraded ecosystems by 2030) is the Decade’s key target. FAO, co-leading the Decade, is the custodian of the monitoring indicator for this target. At the Rome resumed session (February 2025), countries endorsed a monitoring framework for restoration tracking aligned with the Decade’s goals.
GPFLR · UN Strategic Plan for Forests · BIOFIN
Global Partnership on Forest & Landscape Restoration
A global network established in 2003 to promote and implement forest and landscape restoration. Works with governments, NGOs, and communities to restore degraded forests. India is a partner country. Closely linked to the Bonn Challenge — a global effort to restore 350 million hectares of degraded land by 2030. India has committed to restoring 26 million ha under the Bonn Challenge.
UN Strategic Plan for Forests 2017–2030
Adopted by the UN General Assembly in 2017. Guides global action on sustainable forest management. Six Global Forest Goals and 26 associated targets for 2030. Includes: increasing forest area by 3% globally; mobilising finance for sustainable forest management. Implemented through the UN Forum on Forests (UNFF) and its secretariat. India’s ISFR (biennial forest reports) tracks progress.
Biodiversity Finance Initiative (BIOFIN)
A joint initiative of UNDP and EU, implemented in 30+ countries including India. Helps countries develop a Biodiversity Finance Plan — identifying how much funding is needed for conservation, where the gaps are, and which financial instruments (green bonds, PES, REDD+, biodiversity credits) can fill the gaps. India’s BIOFIN work: National Biodiversity Finance Plan identifying INR 2,84,000 crore funding need by 2030. Critical for mobilising the $200 billion/year GBF finance target.
⭐ International Initiatives — Quick Summary
- CBD = Rio 1992 | 3 objectives | USA not a party | 22 May = International Biodiversity Day
- Cartagena Protocol = GMO/LMO safety | 2003
- Nagoya Protocol = ABS — benefit sharing from genetic resources | 2014
- Aichi Targets = COP10 (2010, Nagoya) | 20 targets for 2020 | ALL MISSED
- Kunming-Montreal GBF = COP15 (Dec 2022, Montreal) | 4 goals, 23 targets | 30×30
- COP16 = Cali 2024 | Cali Fund (DSI) | Indigenous Peoples body | Resumed Rome Feb 2025
- COP17 = Yerevan, Armenia, 2026 — next meeting
- MAB = UNESCO 1971 | 748 BRs globally | India: 18 BRs, 12 in UNESCO network
- UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration = 2021–2030 | UNEP + FAO | Restore 30% degraded ecosystems
- BIOFIN = UNDP + EU | Biodiversity finance plans | India participating
