Legacy IAS · Bangalore
🐯 Tiger Conservation
🐯 Tiger Conservation
in India
Project Tiger (1973) · NTCA · Core & Buffer Zones · Tiger Task Force · Census 2022 (3,682 tigers) · Tiger Corridors · IBCA · Snow Leopard & GSLEP — complete with PYQs and current affairs.
India at a Glance
India & the Tiger — Current Status
3,682
Average estimate
Tigers in India (2022 Census) ★
~75%
of global wild tigers
India’s share of world tiger population ★
58
as of 2025
Tiger Reserves in India ★
~84,500
km²
Area under tiger reserves ★
32
major
Tiger corridors identified ★
🐅 The Big Story — India’s Tiger Comeback
At the turn of the 20th century, India had an estimated 40,000 tigers. By 1973, when Project Tiger was launched, the number had crashed to just 1,827 — a 95% collapse due to hunting, trophy collection, and habitat loss. By 2006, the first scientific census recorded only 1,411. India committed to doubling this by 2022 (the St. Petersburg Declaration target). The 2022 census recorded 3,682 tigers (min. 3,167) — achieving the doubling target 4 years ahead of schedule. ★
Why Tigers Are in Danger
Threats Faced by Tiger Population
Poaching & Illegal Wildlife Trade ★
Tigers are killed for bones (traditional medicine in China), skin (luxury trade), and other body parts. Despite legal protection, poaching remains the single biggest direct killer. Every part of the tiger — from whiskers to tail — has a black market price.
Habitat Loss & Fragmentation ★
Forests cleared for agriculture, mining, roads, railways, and settlements. Tigers need very large territories (males: 60–100 km²). Fragmented forests leave tiger populations isolated — unable to find mates, leading to inbreeding and local extinction.
Prey Depletion
Poaching of prey species (deer, wild boar, sambar) depletes tigers’ food base. A tiger needs to kill a large animal every 5–7 days. When prey collapses, tigers turn to livestock → human-wildlife conflict escalates.
Human-Tiger Conflict ★
Tigers straying outside reserves → kill livestock → retaliatory killing by farmers. Growing tiger populations (near ecological carrying capacity in some reserves like Corbett) push tigers into human-dominated landscapes. A major emerging challenge.
Linear Infrastructure
Roads, railways, and power lines cut through tiger habitats and corridors. Highways cause direct mortality (roadkills) and fragment territories. The proposed Delhi-Mumbai Expressway (near Ranthambore) and multiple railway projects through Central India forests are critical concerns.
Climate Change
Rising sea levels threatening Sundarbans tigers. Changing monsoon patterns affecting prey availability. Extreme heat events. Snow melt affecting prey distribution in high-altitude habitats. Climate change is an accelerating long-term threat to India’s 5 tiger landscapes.
Flagship Conservation Programme
Project Tiger (PT) — 1973
India’s most successful wildlife conservation initiative. Launched over 50 years ago — and still the world’s largest tiger conservation programme.
1969
IUCN Resolution — International Union for Conservation of Nature passes a resolution calling for immediate action to save tigers from extinction. Global alarm bells ringing.
1972
Wildlife (Protection) Act enacted — Foundation of tiger legal protection in India. Tiger listed in Schedule I (highest protection). Same year — Indian Board for Wildlife forms a Task Force to save tigers.
1 Apr 1973
★ Project Tiger Launched — PM Indira Gandhi launched at Jim Corbett National Park, Uttarakhand. Centrally Sponsored Scheme of MoEFCC. Initially covered 9 tiger reserves. Aimed at protecting tigers from extinction and ensuring viable populations in natural habitats.
2005
Tiger Task Force Report ★ — Submitted by Task Force (chaired by Sunita Narain). Recommended major reforms — created legal framework for NTCA. Triggered amendment to WPA 1972.
2006
NTCA formed ★ — Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act 2006 established the National Tiger Conservation Authority as a statutory body. Project Tiger transformed from a “funding scheme” into a binding legal framework. First scientific tiger census: 1,411 tigers.
2023
★ 50th Anniversary + IBCA Launch — PM Modi celebrated Project Tiger’s 50 years in Mysuru, Karnataka. Released 2022 Census results (3,682 tigers). Launched International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA) for conservation of 7 big cats.
★ Project Tiger — Key Facts for UPSC
- Launched: 1 April 1973 ★ · Location: Jim Corbett National Park, Uttarakhand ★
- Started with: 9 tiger reserves · Now (2025): 58 tiger reserves ★
- Administered by: NTCA under MoEFCC ★
- Type: Centrally Sponsored Scheme — funds flow from Centre to states ★
- 50th anniversary: 2023, celebrated in Mysuru, Karnataka ★
- India achieved the St. Petersburg Declaration target of doubling tigers 4 years early ★
⚠ UPSC Trap — 9 Initial Tiger Reserves ★
The 9 original reserves under Project Tiger (1973) were: Corbett (Uttarakhand), Kanha (MP), Manas (Assam), Melghat (Maharashtra), Palamau (Jharkhand), Ranthambore (Rajasthan), Simlipal (Odisha), Sundarbans (W.Bengal), Bandipur (Karnataka). UPSC frequently asks which reserve was first — answer is always Jim Corbett (it is WHERE Project Tiger was launched). Also: Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam (AP) is India’s largest tiger reserve by area. Jim Corbett is India’s oldest national park (1936, originally Hailey NP). ★
Reserve Architecture ★
Core and Buffer Zones in Tiger Reserves
Two-Zone Model of Tiger Reserves
Based on Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 — Sections 38V and 38W (inserted by 2006 Amendment)
🟢 Core / Critical Tiger Habitat
Core Zone
The inviolate heart of the tiger reserve — absolutely no human disturbance allowed. Scientifically determined as the minimum area necessary for tiger conservation.
- No human settlements or biotic disturbance ★
- Declared “inviolate” — cannot be diverted for any purpose ★
- No tourism or human activities except scientific monitoring
- Defined by State government on WII/NTCA recommendation
- Protected under WPA 1972 with strictest penalties
🟠 Buffer / Fringe Area
Buffer Zone
A transition zone surrounding the core — human activities permitted but regulated. Reduces pressure on the core by providing a graduated buffer of protection.
- Limited human activities permitted — regulated ★
- Eco-tourism allowed (generates revenue for conservation) ★
- Community forest management possible
- Local villages may exist with regulated resource use
- Critical Tiger Habitat (Core) CANNOT be diverted — Buffer CAN be, with safeguards ★
💡 UPSC Trap — Core vs Buffer Diversion ★
Core/Critical Tiger Habitat = INVIOLATE — cannot be diverted for any purpose, under any circumstances, without explicit government notification and WII recommendation (Section 38V of WPA 1972). Buffer Zone = CAN be diverted with appropriate safeguards and compensation. UPSC asks about this distinction. Also: the Supreme Court has consistently upheld the inviolable nature of Core Tiger Habitats, blocking mining, quarrying, and infrastructure projects within them. ★
Institutional Framework ★
Tiger Task Force & NTCA
Tiger Task Force (2005) ★
In 2004-05, a major shock hit Indian tiger conservation — tigers disappeared completely from Sariska Tiger Reserve in Rajasthan (poaching-driven local extinction). This forced the government to act. PM Manmohan Singh set up the Tiger Task Force under the chairmanship of Sunita Narain (Director, Centre for Science and Environment).
The Task Force submitted its report in 2005. Key recommendations: create a statutory body (NTCA) with teeth, establish Wildlife Crime Control Bureau (WCCB), make Core Tiger Habitats inviolate by law, use science-based monitoring methodology, and ensure community involvement.
National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) ★
★ NTCA — All Key Facts
- Established: 2006, by the Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act 2006 ★
- Nature: Statutory body (NOT just an advisory body) — has legal powers ★
- Under: Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) ★
- Chaired by: Union Minister of Environment (ex-officio) ★
- Key functions: Approve tiger reserve declarations; review management plans; address human-tiger conflict; fund states; approve corridors; conduct tiger census every 4 years ★
- Tiger census partner: Wildlife Institute of India (WII), Dehradun — provides scientific methodology and analysis ★
- NOT the same as: Project Tiger was a “funding scheme” — NTCA is a statutory legal authority with enforcement powers
Connectivity Is Survival
Tiger Corridors in India ★
A tiger reserve, however well protected, is an ecological island if isolated from other reserves. Tigers need gene flow between populations — inbreeding in isolated reserves leads to disease susceptibility and reproductive failure. Tiger corridors are stretches of forest land connecting two or more tiger reserves, allowing tigers to move between populations.
★ Tiger Corridors — UPSC Key Facts
- 32 major tiger corridors identified across India by WII ★
- Corridors connect tiger reserves across 5 landscape units: Shivalik-Gangetic Plains, Central India & Eastern Ghats, Western Ghats, North East Hills & Brahmaputra, Sundarbans
- Biggest threats to corridors: Linear infrastructure (highways, railways), encroachments, mining, agricultural expansion ★
- Longest corridor: Central Indian corridor network — links reserves from Panna to Achanakmar to Indravati
- Wildlife crossings: Underpasses and overpasses on highways (e.g., NH-7 Kanha-Pench corridor) allow tigers to cross safely ★
- Supreme Court has directed that tiger corridors be treated as protected areas and no infrastructure be permitted without NTCA clearance ★
- India’s 12-km wildlife overpass on Delhi-Mumbai Expressway near Ranthambore is a notable example of corridor-sensitive infrastructure ★
The Kanha-Pench corridor (MP) and Corbett-Rajaji corridor (Uttarakhand) are frequently cited examples. The Terai Arc Landscape in Uttarakhand-UP-Nepal is India’s most critical transboundary tiger corridor — connecting 7+ tiger reserves.
5th Cycle · Latest Data ★
Tiger Census 2022 — Complete Data
Census Trend — All India Tiger Estimation
2006 (1st)
1,411
First scientific census · new methodology ★
2010 (2nd)
1,706
+21% from 2006
↑ +295
2014 (3rd)
2,226
+30% from 2010
↑ +520
2018 (4th)
2,967
+33% from 2014
↑ +741
2022 (5th) ★
3,682
Min: 3,167 · Max: 3,925
↑ +715
2022 Census — State-wise Top 5
RANK 1 ★
Madhya Pradesh
785
↑ from 526 (2018)
RANK 2
Karnataka
563
↑ from 524 (2018)
RANK 3
Uttarakhand
560
↑ from 442 (2018)
RANK 4
Maharashtra
444
↑ from 312 (2018)
RANK 5
Tamil Nadu
306
↑ from 264 (2018)
★ 2022 Census — Reserve-level Highlights
- Jim Corbett (Uttarakhand): Highest tigers in any single reserve — 260 ★
- Bandipur (Karnataka): 2nd highest reserve — 150 tigers
- Nagarhole (Karnataka): 141 tigers
- Nilgiri cluster (Tamil Nadu-Karnataka-Kerala): World’s largest single population — 981 tigers ★
- Western Ghats overall: Despite having the largest cluster, tiger occupancy showed a DECLINE in several areas — a warning sign ★
- Declining states: Arunachal Pradesh (29→9), Odisha (28→20), Chhattisgarh (19→17), Jharkhand (5→1), Telangana (26→21) ★
- Largest increase: Madhya Pradesh (+259), Maharashtra (+132), Uttarakhand (+118) ★
M-STrIPES — How the Census Works ★
M-STrIPES — Monitoring System for Tigers: Intensive Protection and Ecological Status
The Tiger Census uses a double-sampling methodology developed by WII and approved by the Tiger Task Force in 2005. Phase I: Forest guards collect data on pugmarks, scat, and signs using the M-STrIPES mobile app across 380,000+ km² (2022). Phase II: WII biologists place camera traps to individually identify tigers by their unique stripe patterns. Genetic analysis of scat used in camera-inaccessible areas. Data from both phases combined using occupancy modelling to estimate population even in unsampled areas.
Census conducted every 4 years ★ · Next census: 2026 · 2022 census involved ~40,000 people and 6,41,102 man-hours ★
Global Efforts ★ — Current Affairs 2023–24
International Big Cat Alliance & Snow Leopard Conservation
★ Launched April 2023 · Mysuru, Karnataka
International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA)
India’s global initiative for 7 big cat species — 50th anniversary of Project Tiger
Launched: 9 April 2023 by PM Narendra Modi during 50th anniversary celebration of Project Tiger in Mysuru. Formalized as a treaty-based international organization (effective February 2025).
7 Big Cats covered ★: Tiger · Lion · Leopard · Snow Leopard · Cheetah · Jaguar · Puma
Headquarters: India (New Delhi area) ★
Funding: India pledged ₹150 crore initial corpus (for 5 years 2023–28) ★
Scope: Reaches out to 97 range countries covering natural habitats of all 7 big cats. Modelled on International Solar Alliance (ISA). Goals: anti-poaching cooperation, habitat corridor protection, capacity building, knowledge sharing.
Treaty-based since Feb 2025 ★
₹150 cr initial fund ★
97 range countries
HQ: India ★
Intergovernmental · HQ New Delhi ★
Global Tiger Forum (GTF)
Dedicated international body for tiger conservation cooperation
Nature: Intergovernmental organisation dedicated specifically to tiger conservation ★
Headquarters: New Delhi, India ★
Members: Tiger range countries — India, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Russia, Thailand, Vietnam
Goal: Foster international cooperation among tiger range states; implement Global Tiger Recovery Programme; coordinate census methodologies across countries.
St. Petersburg Declaration (2010): GTF member countries committed to doubling wild tiger numbers by 2022 — India was the only country to achieve this target. ★
HQ: New Delhi ★
Tiger-specific ★
St. Petersburg target ★
Established 2013 · 12 Range Countries ★
GSLEP — Global Snow Leopard & Ecosystem Protection
Bishkek Declaration 2013 · Protect 20 snow leopard landscapes by 2020
12 range countries: Afghanistan, Bhutan, China, India, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Russia, Tajikistan. ★
India’s GSLEP commitment: Identified 5 snow leopard landscapes in India: Hemis-Spiti, Nanda Devi, Kanchenjunga-Tawang, Khangchendzonga, Dibang. The Bishkek Declaration mandated countries to protect at least 20 snow leopard landscapes globally (Secure 20 — “S20” target).
Bishkek Declaration 2013 ★
12 range countries ★
“S20” target
India: 5 landscapes
Practice Questions
MCQ Practice Set
MCQ 01 · Easy — Project Tiger Basics ★
Project Tiger was launched on 1 April 1973. Which of the following statements about it are correct?
1. It was first launched at Jim Corbett National Park in Uttarakhand
2. It was initially launched with 9 tiger reserves
3. It is administered by the Wildlife Institute of India (WII)
4. It is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme of MoEFCC
1. It was first launched at Jim Corbett National Park in Uttarakhand
2. It was initially launched with 9 tiger reserves
3. It is administered by the Wildlife Institute of India (WII)
4. It is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme of MoEFCC
a) 1 and 2 only
b) 1, 2 and 3 only
c) 1, 2 and 4 only
d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
Answer: (c) 1, 2 and 4 only
Statement 1: CORRECT ★ — Project Tiger was launched at Jim Corbett NP (Uttarakhand). Statement 2: CORRECT ★ — Started with 9 reserves; now 58 (2025). Statement 3: WRONG ★ — Project Tiger is administered by NTCA (National Tiger Conservation Authority) — NOT WII. WII provides scientific methodology and conducts census analysis, but NTCA is the administering authority. Statement 4: CORRECT ★ — It is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme of MoEFCC — the Centre provides funds to tiger states for reserve management and anti-poaching.
Statement 1: CORRECT ★ — Project Tiger was launched at Jim Corbett NP (Uttarakhand). Statement 2: CORRECT ★ — Started with 9 reserves; now 58 (2025). Statement 3: WRONG ★ — Project Tiger is administered by NTCA (National Tiger Conservation Authority) — NOT WII. WII provides scientific methodology and conducts census analysis, but NTCA is the administering authority. Statement 4: CORRECT ★ — It is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme of MoEFCC — the Centre provides funds to tiger states for reserve management and anti-poaching.
MCQ 02 · Medium — NTCA ★
With reference to the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA), which of the following statements is/are correct?
1. NTCA was established under the Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act, 2006
2. NTCA is a statutory body under MoEFCC
3. The tiger census is conducted every 4 years by NTCA in partnership with WII
4. NTCA can declare any area as a tiger reserve without state government approval
1. NTCA was established under the Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act, 2006
2. NTCA is a statutory body under MoEFCC
3. The tiger census is conducted every 4 years by NTCA in partnership with WII
4. NTCA can declare any area as a tiger reserve without state government approval
a) 1 and 2 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1, 2 and 3 only
d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
Answer: (c) 1, 2 and 3 only
Statement 1: CORRECT ★ — NTCA was established by the Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act, 2006, which amended the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. Statement 2: CORRECT ★ — NTCA is a statutory body (has legal authority by act of Parliament) under MoEFCC, chaired by the Union Environment Minister. Statement 3: CORRECT ★ — Every 4 years, NTCA conducts the All India Tiger Estimation in partnership with state forest departments, WII, and conservation NGOs. Statement 4: WRONG ★ — NTCA cannot unilaterally declare a tiger reserve. It is the State Government that declares a tiger reserve, after NTCA approval/recommendation and WII site-specific assessment (Sections 38T and 38V of WPA 1972).
Statement 1: CORRECT ★ — NTCA was established by the Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act, 2006, which amended the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. Statement 2: CORRECT ★ — NTCA is a statutory body (has legal authority by act of Parliament) under MoEFCC, chaired by the Union Environment Minister. Statement 3: CORRECT ★ — Every 4 years, NTCA conducts the All India Tiger Estimation in partnership with state forest departments, WII, and conservation NGOs. Statement 4: WRONG ★ — NTCA cannot unilaterally declare a tiger reserve. It is the State Government that declares a tiger reserve, after NTCA approval/recommendation and WII site-specific assessment (Sections 38T and 38V of WPA 1972).
MCQ 03 · Hard — 2022 Census Data ★
Consider the following statements about the 2022 All India Tiger Estimation:
1. The minimum estimate of tiger population was 3,167 and average estimate was 3,682
2. Madhya Pradesh had the highest tiger population, followed by Karnataka
3. Jim Corbett National Park had the highest tiger count among all individual reserves
4. The Western Ghats tiger population showed an overall increase from 2018
1. The minimum estimate of tiger population was 3,167 and average estimate was 3,682
2. Madhya Pradesh had the highest tiger population, followed by Karnataka
3. Jim Corbett National Park had the highest tiger count among all individual reserves
4. The Western Ghats tiger population showed an overall increase from 2018
a) 1 and 3 only
b) 1, 2 and 4 only
c) 1, 2 and 3 only
d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
Answer: (c) 1, 2 and 3 only
Statement 1: CORRECT ★ — Min 3,167, average 3,682, maximum 3,925. Statement 2: CORRECT ★ — MP: 785 (rank 1), Karnataka: 563 (rank 2), Uttarakhand: 560 (rank 3), Maharashtra: 444 (rank 4). Statement 3: CORRECT ★ — Jim Corbett: 260 tigers, highest among all individual reserves. Statement 4: WRONG ★ — This is the key negative finding of 2022! The Western Ghats cluster remains the world’s largest single tiger population (981), but tiger occupancy DECLINED in several Western Ghats areas — Wayanad, BRT Hills, parts of Periyar landscape showed decreased occupancy outside protected areas. The overall population within reserves was stable/increasing, but tigers were being squeezed out of fringe areas.
Statement 1: CORRECT ★ — Min 3,167, average 3,682, maximum 3,925. Statement 2: CORRECT ★ — MP: 785 (rank 1), Karnataka: 563 (rank 2), Uttarakhand: 560 (rank 3), Maharashtra: 444 (rank 4). Statement 3: CORRECT ★ — Jim Corbett: 260 tigers, highest among all individual reserves. Statement 4: WRONG ★ — This is the key negative finding of 2022! The Western Ghats cluster remains the world’s largest single tiger population (981), but tiger occupancy DECLINED in several Western Ghats areas — Wayanad, BRT Hills, parts of Periyar landscape showed decreased occupancy outside protected areas. The overall population within reserves was stable/increasing, but tigers were being squeezed out of fringe areas.
MCQ 04 · Medium — IBCA ★
Consider the following about the International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA) launched in 2023:
1. It was launched by PM Modi in Mysuru to mark 50 years of Project Tiger
2. It covers 7 big cat species — Tiger, Lion, Leopard, Snow Leopard, Cheetah, Jaguar, and Puma
3. India pledged ₹150 crore as initial funding for 5 years
4. Its headquarters is proposed to be in Mysuru, Karnataka
1. It was launched by PM Modi in Mysuru to mark 50 years of Project Tiger
2. It covers 7 big cat species — Tiger, Lion, Leopard, Snow Leopard, Cheetah, Jaguar, and Puma
3. India pledged ₹150 crore as initial funding for 5 years
4. Its headquarters is proposed to be in Mysuru, Karnataka
a) 1 and 2 only
b) 1, 2 and 4 only
c) 1, 2 and 3 only
d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
Answer: (c) 1, 2 and 3 only
Statement 1: CORRECT ★ — Launched 9 April 2023 in Mysuru during 50th anniversary of Project Tiger. Statement 2: CORRECT ★ — The 7 big cats: Tiger, Lion, Leopard, Snow Leopard, Cheetah, Jaguar, Puma. Statement 3: CORRECT ★ — ₹150 crore (≈$18 million) initial corpus. Statement 4: WRONG ★ — IBCA HQ is in India (New Delhi area), NOT Mysuru. The launch event was in Mysuru, but headquarters is near India’s capital. Common trap: confusing launch venue with HQ location.
Statement 1: CORRECT ★ — Launched 9 April 2023 in Mysuru during 50th anniversary of Project Tiger. Statement 2: CORRECT ★ — The 7 big cats: Tiger, Lion, Leopard, Snow Leopard, Cheetah, Jaguar, Puma. Statement 3: CORRECT ★ — ₹150 crore (≈$18 million) initial corpus. Statement 4: WRONG ★ — IBCA HQ is in India (New Delhi area), NOT Mysuru. The launch event was in Mysuru, but headquarters is near India’s capital. Common trap: confusing launch venue with HQ location.
MCQ 05 · Easy — Snow Leopard ★
Consider the following about the Snow Leopard and its conservation:
1. Its IUCN status is Endangered
2. Ladakh has the highest snow leopard population among Indian states/UTs
3. GSLEP was established at the Bishkek Declaration in 2013
4. Snow leopard is both a keystone species and indicator species of high-altitude ecosystems
1. Its IUCN status is Endangered
2. Ladakh has the highest snow leopard population among Indian states/UTs
3. GSLEP was established at the Bishkek Declaration in 2013
4. Snow leopard is both a keystone species and indicator species of high-altitude ecosystems
a) 1, 2 and 4 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 2, 3 and 4 only
d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
Answer: (c) 2, 3 and 4 only
Statement 1: WRONG ★ — Snow Leopard’s IUCN status was changed from Endangered to Vulnerable in 2017. This is a frequent UPSC trap — older sources say Endangered. Current (2025) status: Vulnerable. Statement 2: CORRECT ★ — Ladakh has India’s highest snow leopard population, followed by Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand. Statement 3: CORRECT ★ — GSLEP was established at the Bishkek Declaration (Kyrgyzstan) in 2013, signed by all 12 snow leopard range countries. “S20” target = secure 20 landscapes. Statement 4: CORRECT ★ — Snow leopard is a keystone species (controls prey populations, maintaining ecosystem balance) AND an indicator species (its health indicates the health of the entire high-altitude ecosystem).
Statement 1: WRONG ★ — Snow Leopard’s IUCN status was changed from Endangered to Vulnerable in 2017. This is a frequent UPSC trap — older sources say Endangered. Current (2025) status: Vulnerable. Statement 2: CORRECT ★ — Ladakh has India’s highest snow leopard population, followed by Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand. Statement 3: CORRECT ★ — GSLEP was established at the Bishkek Declaration (Kyrgyzstan) in 2013, signed by all 12 snow leopard range countries. “S20” target = secure 20 landscapes. Statement 4: CORRECT ★ — Snow leopard is a keystone species (controls prey populations, maintaining ecosystem balance) AND an indicator species (its health indicates the health of the entire high-altitude ecosystem).
UPSC Previous Year Questions
PYQs — Tiger & Conservation
UPSC Prelims 2019 — Direct ★
PYQ 01 · M-STrIPES Tiger Census
The term “M-STrIPES” is sometimes seen in news in the context of:
a) Satellite mapping of mineral deposits in Jharkhand
b) Stripes pattern of uniform worn by personnel of Central Armed Police Forces
c) Monitoring of tiger populations
d) Archiving wildlife footage in nature reserves
Official Answer: (c) Monitoring of tiger populations — UPSC Prelims 2019
M-STrIPES stands for Monitoring System for Tigers — Intensive Protection and Ecological Status. It is a mobile application launched by NTCA and WII in 2010 for real-time monitoring of tigers and their habitats in Indian tiger reserves. Forest guards use the app to record: pugmarks, tiger sightings, prey counts, vegetation data, carnivore signs, and human pressure indicators — all geotagged using GPS. The data is uploaded to a central server, allowing NTCA to get continuous information on tiger populations between the 4-yearly formal censuses. M-STrIPES was also used for Phase I data collection in the 2022 Tiger Census (5th cycle) across all 20+ tiger-bearing states. ★
M-STrIPES stands for Monitoring System for Tigers — Intensive Protection and Ecological Status. It is a mobile application launched by NTCA and WII in 2010 for real-time monitoring of tigers and their habitats in Indian tiger reserves. Forest guards use the app to record: pugmarks, tiger sightings, prey counts, vegetation data, carnivore signs, and human pressure indicators — all geotagged using GPS. The data is uploaded to a central server, allowing NTCA to get continuous information on tiger populations between the 4-yearly formal censuses. M-STrIPES was also used for Phase I data collection in the 2022 Tiger Census (5th cycle) across all 20+ tiger-bearing states. ★
UPSC Prelims — Pattern ★
PYQ 02 · Tiger Reserves — Largest Area
Among the following Tiger Reserves, which one has the largest area under “Critical Tiger Habitat”?
a) Corbett
b) Ranthambore
c) Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam
d) Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam
Answer: Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam (Andhra Pradesh/Telangana) — UPSC Prelims direct pattern.
Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve is India’s largest tiger reserve by total area (~3,296 km²) ★. It spans Andhra Pradesh and Telangana and also covers part of Nallamala Hills. Key UPSC comparisons: (1) Largest by area: Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam ★. (2) Highest tiger count in a reserve: Jim Corbett (260 tigers) ★. (3) Highest tiger density: Jim Corbett ★. (4) First/oldest reserve: Jim Corbett (where Project Tiger was launched 1973) ★. (5) Smallest reserve: Orang (Assam, 492 km²) ★. These five distinctions — largest, most tigers, densest, first, and smallest — are the standard UPSC question set.
Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve is India’s largest tiger reserve by total area (~3,296 km²) ★. It spans Andhra Pradesh and Telangana and also covers part of Nallamala Hills. Key UPSC comparisons: (1) Largest by area: Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam ★. (2) Highest tiger count in a reserve: Jim Corbett (260 tigers) ★. (3) Highest tiger density: Jim Corbett ★. (4) First/oldest reserve: Jim Corbett (where Project Tiger was launched 1973) ★. (5) Smallest reserve: Orang (Assam, 492 km²) ★. These five distinctions — largest, most tigers, densest, first, and smallest — are the standard UPSC question set.
UPSC Prelims 2016 — Direct ★
PYQ 03 · Lion Translocation Site
Recently, there was a proposal to translocate some of the lions from their natural habitat in Gujarat to which one of the following sites?
a) Corbett National Park
b) Kuno-Palpur Wildlife Sanctuary
c) Kuno-Palpur Wildlife Sanctuary
d) Sariska Tiger Reserve
Official Answer: Kuno-Palpur Wildlife Sanctuary (Madhya Pradesh) — UPSC Prelims 2016
Kuno National Park (formerly Kuno-Palpur Wildlife Sanctuary) in Madhya Pradesh has been identified as the site for reintroduction of Asiatic Lions from Gir Forest (Gujarat). The Supreme Court in 2013 directed Gujarat to transfer some lions to Kuno within 6 months. Gujarat has resisted this due to political and ecological concerns — the matter is still pending. Kuno was later (2022) used for India’s Cheetah Reintroduction Programme — 8 Namibian cheetahs were brought in September 2022, followed by 12 South African cheetahs in February 2023. ★
Critical UPSC facts: Asiatic Lion (Panthera leo persica) — IUCN Endangered. Only population: Gir National Park and Wildlife Sanctuary (Gujarat) — ~674 lions (2020 census). Cheetah reintroduction is at Kuno NP (MP) — Kuno was originally prepared for lions but ended up being used for cheetahs first.
Kuno National Park (formerly Kuno-Palpur Wildlife Sanctuary) in Madhya Pradesh has been identified as the site for reintroduction of Asiatic Lions from Gir Forest (Gujarat). The Supreme Court in 2013 directed Gujarat to transfer some lions to Kuno within 6 months. Gujarat has resisted this due to political and ecological concerns — the matter is still pending. Kuno was later (2022) used for India’s Cheetah Reintroduction Programme — 8 Namibian cheetahs were brought in September 2022, followed by 12 South African cheetahs in February 2023. ★
Critical UPSC facts: Asiatic Lion (Panthera leo persica) — IUCN Endangered. Only population: Gir National Park and Wildlife Sanctuary (Gujarat) — ~674 lions (2020 census). Cheetah reintroduction is at Kuno NP (MP) — Kuno was originally prepared for lions but ended up being used for cheetahs first.
UPSC Prelims 2017 — Direct ★
PYQ 04 · Schedule I WPA — Tiger
In India, if a species of tortoise is declared protected under Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, what does it imply?
a) It enjoys the same level of protection as the tiger
b) It no longer exists in the wild, a few individuals are under captive protection
c) It is endemic to a particular region of India
d) Both (b) and (c) are correct
Official Answer: (a) It enjoys the same level of protection as the tiger — UPSC Prelims 2017
Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 confers the highest level of legal protection — no hunting, poaching, trading or any harmful activity whatsoever. Species in Schedule I include: Tiger, Lion, Leopard, Snow Leopard, Clouded Leopard, Elephant, Rhinoceros, Dugong, Gangetic Dolphin, and many others. A Schedule I listing does NOT imply the species is extinct in the wild (option b) — many Schedule I species have healthy populations. It does NOT imply endemism (option c) — many non-endemic species are in Schedule I. The key point: all Schedule I species = same protection level = tiger-level protection ★. Penalties for harming a Schedule I species: minimum 3 years jail (up to 7 years) and fine of ₹25,000 (up to ₹10 lakh for repeat offenders).
Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 confers the highest level of legal protection — no hunting, poaching, trading or any harmful activity whatsoever. Species in Schedule I include: Tiger, Lion, Leopard, Snow Leopard, Clouded Leopard, Elephant, Rhinoceros, Dugong, Gangetic Dolphin, and many others. A Schedule I listing does NOT imply the species is extinct in the wild (option b) — many Schedule I species have healthy populations. It does NOT imply endemism (option c) — many non-endemic species are in Schedule I. The key point: all Schedule I species = same protection level = tiger-level protection ★. Penalties for harming a Schedule I species: minimum 3 years jail (up to 7 years) and fine of ₹25,000 (up to ₹10 lakh for repeat offenders).
UPSC Prelims — Pattern ★
PYQ 05 · Tiger — Flagship & Umbrella Species
Consider the following statements about the Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris tigris):
1. It is both an umbrella species and a flagship species for conservation
2. Tigers are an apex predator and help regulate prey populations
3. The Sundarbans has the largest tiger population among all tiger reserves in India
4. India hosts approximately 75% of the world’s wild tiger population
1. It is both an umbrella species and a flagship species for conservation
2. Tigers are an apex predator and help regulate prey populations
3. The Sundarbans has the largest tiger population among all tiger reserves in India
4. India hosts approximately 75% of the world’s wild tiger population
a) 1, 2 and 3 only
b) 2, 3 and 4 only
c) 1, 2 and 4 only
d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
Answer: (c) 1, 2 and 4 only
Statement 1: CORRECT ★ — Tiger is both a flagship species (charismatic, drives public support for conservation) AND an umbrella species (protecting tiger habitat protects hundreds of co-existing species — entire ecosystems). Statement 2: CORRECT ★ — As apex predator, tigers control deer/boar populations, preventing overgrazing — regulating entire trophic structure. Statement 3: WRONG ★ — This is a common trap. Sundarbans has approximately 100 tigers (2022 census). The tiger reserve with the HIGHEST individual count is Jim Corbett (260), followed by Bandipur (150) and Nagarhole (141). Sundarbans is ecologically unique but NOT India’s largest tiger reserve by numbers. Statement 4: CORRECT ★ — India hosts approximately 75% of the world’s wild tiger population (3,682 of ~5,574 globally).
Statement 1: CORRECT ★ — Tiger is both a flagship species (charismatic, drives public support for conservation) AND an umbrella species (protecting tiger habitat protects hundreds of co-existing species — entire ecosystems). Statement 2: CORRECT ★ — As apex predator, tigers control deer/boar populations, preventing overgrazing — regulating entire trophic structure. Statement 3: WRONG ★ — This is a common trap. Sundarbans has approximately 100 tigers (2022 census). The tiger reserve with the HIGHEST individual count is Jim Corbett (260), followed by Bandipur (150) and Nagarhole (141). Sundarbans is ecologically unique but NOT India’s largest tiger reserve by numbers. Statement 4: CORRECT ★ — India hosts approximately 75% of the world’s wild tiger population (3,682 of ~5,574 globally).
Frequently Asked Questions
FAQs — Tiger Conservation
What is the difference between a Tiger Reserve, National Park, and Wildlife Sanctuary?
National Park — Highest legal protection under WPA 1972. Boundaries defined by legislation. No human activity whatsoever — no grazing, no biomass collection, no private rights. Tourism allowed only with permission. India: 106 NPs.
Wildlife Sanctuary — Protected under WPA 1972 but lower than NP. “Limited biotic interference permitted” ★ — some human activities allowed, private rights not extinguished, grazing may be permitted. India: 567 sanctuaries.
Tiger Reserve — A legal designation under WPA 1972 (Section 38V) for critical tiger habitats. A Tiger Reserve always contains a Core Zone (inviolate, like a NP or stricter) and a Buffer Zone (regulated human activities). A National Park can be the Core of a Tiger Reserve — e.g., Corbett NP is the core of Corbett Tiger Reserve.
Key distinction ★: Not all National Parks are Tiger Reserves, and not all Tiger Reserves contain National Parks. A Tiger Reserve is a tiger-specific conservation unit managed by NTCA, while NP and WLS are general protected area categories under WPA 1972.
Wildlife Sanctuary — Protected under WPA 1972 but lower than NP. “Limited biotic interference permitted” ★ — some human activities allowed, private rights not extinguished, grazing may be permitted. India: 567 sanctuaries.
Tiger Reserve — A legal designation under WPA 1972 (Section 38V) for critical tiger habitats. A Tiger Reserve always contains a Core Zone (inviolate, like a NP or stricter) and a Buffer Zone (regulated human activities). A National Park can be the Core of a Tiger Reserve — e.g., Corbett NP is the core of Corbett Tiger Reserve.
Key distinction ★: Not all National Parks are Tiger Reserves, and not all Tiger Reserves contain National Parks. A Tiger Reserve is a tiger-specific conservation unit managed by NTCA, while NP and WLS are general protected area categories under WPA 1972.
Why does the tiger census give a range (3,167 to 3,925) rather than a single number?
The tiger census uses statistical estimation, not a direct count. Here’s why a range is inherently more honest than a single number:
Phase I (M-STrIPES): Forest guards cover ~6,41,449 km² recording signs (pugmarks, scat, scrapes, scratch marks). This gives occupancy data — which areas tigers use — but cannot count individuals.
Phase II (Camera traps): Camera traps are placed strategically in tiger areas. Each tiger has unique stripe patterns — identified individually like fingerprints. 3,080 unique tigers were photographically identified in 2022 (minimum count from photos = 3,080). ★
Phase III (Statistical modelling): Cameras cannot be everywhere. WII uses occupancy models and density estimates to extrapolate populations in unsampled areas. This creates the confidence interval: minimum 3,167 (absolute floor from data), average 3,682 (best estimate), maximum 3,925 (upper confidence limit).
Genetic analysis: In areas where cameras cannot be deployed (deep forests, Northeast India), DNA from scat is extracted and analysed — giving species identification and individual identification. This adds tigers to the count beyond what cameras capture.
The minimum (3,167) is the most conservative, defensible figure. UPSC typically asks about either the minimum or average figure — know both. ★
Phase I (M-STrIPES): Forest guards cover ~6,41,449 km² recording signs (pugmarks, scat, scrapes, scratch marks). This gives occupancy data — which areas tigers use — but cannot count individuals.
Phase II (Camera traps): Camera traps are placed strategically in tiger areas. Each tiger has unique stripe patterns — identified individually like fingerprints. 3,080 unique tigers were photographically identified in 2022 (minimum count from photos = 3,080). ★
Phase III (Statistical modelling): Cameras cannot be everywhere. WII uses occupancy models and density estimates to extrapolate populations in unsampled areas. This creates the confidence interval: minimum 3,167 (absolute floor from data), average 3,682 (best estimate), maximum 3,925 (upper confidence limit).
Genetic analysis: In areas where cameras cannot be deployed (deep forests, Northeast India), DNA from scat is extracted and analysed — giving species identification and individual identification. This adds tigers to the count beyond what cameras capture.
The minimum (3,167) is the most conservative, defensible figure. UPSC typically asks about either the minimum or average figure — know both. ★
What is the IBCA and how is it different from the Global Tiger Forum (GTF)?
Both are India-headquartered international bodies for big cat conservation, but they differ fundamentally:
Global Tiger Forum (GTF): Established 1994. Intergovernmental body. ONLY focuses on tigers. Members = tiger range countries. Coordinated the St. Petersburg Declaration (2010) commitment to double tigers by 2022. Conducts joint tiger surveys across range countries. HQ: New Delhi. ★
International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA): Launched April 2023 by India. Covers ALL 7 big cats (Tiger, Lion, Leopard, Snow Leopard, Cheetah, Jaguar, Puma). Reaches out to 97 countries (both range and non-range). Modelled on International Solar Alliance. India provided ₹150 crore seed funding. Treaty-based multilateral organization (formalized February 2025). HQ: India. ★
Simple distinction: GTF = tigers only + range countries only + older (1994). IBCA = all 7 big cats + 97 countries + newer (2023) + India’s diplomatic initiative. ★
Global Tiger Forum (GTF): Established 1994. Intergovernmental body. ONLY focuses on tigers. Members = tiger range countries. Coordinated the St. Petersburg Declaration (2010) commitment to double tigers by 2022. Conducts joint tiger surveys across range countries. HQ: New Delhi. ★
International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA): Launched April 2023 by India. Covers ALL 7 big cats (Tiger, Lion, Leopard, Snow Leopard, Cheetah, Jaguar, Puma). Reaches out to 97 countries (both range and non-range). Modelled on International Solar Alliance. India provided ₹150 crore seed funding. Treaty-based multilateral organization (formalized February 2025). HQ: India. ★
Simple distinction: GTF = tigers only + range countries only + older (1994). IBCA = all 7 big cats + 97 countries + newer (2023) + India’s diplomatic initiative. ★
Sariska and Panna tiger reserves lost all their tigers — what happened and how were they restored?
These two cases represent India’s biggest conservation crisis and recovery story simultaneously:
Sariska Tiger Reserve (Rajasthan), 2004–05: A 2004 survey revealed Sariska had ZERO tigers — all were poached. This was catastrophic — it triggered the formation of the Tiger Task Force (Sunita Narain) and ultimately the creation of NTCA. Sariska’s failure exposed deep systemic problems: corruption in forest departments, armed poaching gangs, ineffective monitoring.
Sariska restoration: Tigers were translocated from Ranthambore (Rajasthan) — India’s first tiger translocation programme. Starting 2008, tigers were radio-collared and moved to Sariska. By 2022, Sariska had ~25 tigers — a successful recovery showing that habitat alone (if protected) can support tiger populations even after complete local extinction. ★
Panna Tiger Reserve (MP), 2009: Last tiger was killed in 2009 — another complete local extinction due to poaching. Tigers were translocated from Kanha (MP) and Pench (MP). By 2022, Panna had ~70+ tigers — another remarkable recovery. Both Sariska and Panna are now used as case studies in tiger reintroduction science globally. ★
Lesson for UPSC: Tiger habitat can recover if protected — but only if the underlying threats (especially poaching) are eliminated first. The Sariska crisis directly caused the formation of NTCA and Wildlife Crime Control Bureau (WCCB). ★
Sariska Tiger Reserve (Rajasthan), 2004–05: A 2004 survey revealed Sariska had ZERO tigers — all were poached. This was catastrophic — it triggered the formation of the Tiger Task Force (Sunita Narain) and ultimately the creation of NTCA. Sariska’s failure exposed deep systemic problems: corruption in forest departments, armed poaching gangs, ineffective monitoring.
Sariska restoration: Tigers were translocated from Ranthambore (Rajasthan) — India’s first tiger translocation programme. Starting 2008, tigers were radio-collared and moved to Sariska. By 2022, Sariska had ~25 tigers — a successful recovery showing that habitat alone (if protected) can support tiger populations even after complete local extinction. ★
Panna Tiger Reserve (MP), 2009: Last tiger was killed in 2009 — another complete local extinction due to poaching. Tigers were translocated from Kanha (MP) and Pench (MP). By 2022, Panna had ~70+ tigers — another remarkable recovery. Both Sariska and Panna are now used as case studies in tiger reintroduction science globally. ★
Lesson for UPSC: Tiger habitat can recover if protected — but only if the underlying threats (especially poaching) are eliminated first. The Sariska crisis directly caused the formation of NTCA and Wildlife Crime Control Bureau (WCCB). ★
