1
Clean Coal Technology — Reducing CO₂ from the Dirtiest Fuel
India’s energy dilemma: 79% of domestic energy supply from coal (FY25, Energy Statistics India 2026)
🤔 Why “Clean Coal” Is Both Necessary and Controversial
India produced a record 1.047 billion tonnes of coal in FY 2024-25. Coal accounts for 79% of India’s domestic energy supply and employs 3.6 million people in 159 districts. You simply cannot switch off coal overnight — even if you wanted to. So “clean coal” technologies aim to reduce the damage coal does while the energy transition happens. Think of it like a filter on a chimney — the coal still burns, but less CO₂ escapes. Critics call it a “fossil fuel lifeline” — and they have a point. But for India’s energy security, it’s a practical bridge technology.
Clean Coal Technologies — UPSC Classification
- Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC): Coal is converted to synthetic gas (syngas) — CO + H₂ — before combustion. Burns cleaner than direct coal combustion. Syngas can be cleaned of sulphur, mercury, CO₂ before burning. Higher efficiency (45-50% vs 33-38% for conventional coal). Enables carbon capture more easily than post-combustion capture.
- Coal Bed Methane (CBM): Extraction of methane trapped in coal seams. Prevents methane (powerful GHG, 80× CO₂ over 20 years) from escaping during mining. India has one of the world’s largest untapped CBM reserves — ~2.6 trillion cubic metres. Used as natural gas — cleaner than coal combustion.
- Supercritical / Ultra-supercritical Boilers: Coal burned at much higher temperatures and pressures → higher efficiency → less coal needed per unit electricity → less CO₂. India’s newer plants (e.g., NTPC Khargone) use supercritical technology. Ultra-supercritical operates at 600-650°C and 250-300 bar — efficiency of 45%+ vs old plants at 30-35%.
- Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD): Removes SO₂ from coal plant exhaust. India mandated FGD installation by December 2024 — but implementation has been repeatedly delayed (deadline now extended to 2027-29). Only ~7% of India’s coal capacity had FGD installed by early 2025.
- Coal Washing / Beneficiation: Removing impurities (ash, sulphur) from coal before burning → cleaner combustion, higher calorific value, less ash disposal. India’s coal has high ash content (30-45%) — washing reduces this significantly.
- Co-firing with Biomass: Replacing a fraction (5-20%) of coal with agricultural biomass in existing coal boilers. Reduces net CO₂ (biomass is carbon-neutral). India’s biomass co-firing policy targets 5% blending in thermal plants.
🔴 India Coal Data — Updated Facts 2025
- Coal production: 1.047 billion tonnes in FY 2024-25 — first time crossing 1 billion tonne milestone (Ministry of Coal)
- Coal’s share of India’s installed power capacity: 47% in 2024 — down from majority for the first time
- Coal’s share of electricity generation: ~64% in Q1 2025 (down from ~70% in 2023) — declining slowly
- India’s coal use projected to peak: Not until 2040 according to Ministry of Coal
- India’s stated policy: “Phasedown” of coal — not “phaseout” — with energy security as primary priority
- New coal plants: India approved a record 38.4 GW of new coal plant proposals in 2024 — over 92 GW proposed capacity as of mid-2025
- Jobs at stake: 3.6 million people employed in coal sector in 159 districts | 284 of 736 districts have coal-dependent populations
- National Electricity Plan (NEP2023): No new coal power plants without CCS or hybrid systems post-2027 — a significant policy direction
2
CCUS / CCS / CCU — Carbon Capture, Utilisation & Storage 2025
India launched its first R&D Roadmap for CCUS on December 2, 2025 · 228 operational projects globally
💡 CCS vs CCU vs CCUS — What’s the Difference?
CCS (Carbon Capture and Storage): Capture CO₂ from a power plant or factory → compress it → pump it deep underground into rock formations → seal it permanently. Like burying the problem. CCU (Carbon Capture and Utilisation): Capture CO₂ → convert it into useful products — concrete blocks, fuels, plastics, chemicals. Like recycling the problem. CCUS is the umbrella term covering both — it also includes DACCS (removing CO₂ already in the atmosphere). IPCC says CCUS is essential for net-zero, especially for hard-to-abate industries like cement, steel, and chemicals where you can’t just “switch to solar.”
CAPTURE
CO₂ separated from industrial flue gases at coal plants, cement kilns, steel furnaces. Or removed directly from air (DAC)
COMPRESS
CO₂ compressed into dense fluid (supercritical state). Volume reduced 100-fold for transport efficiency
TRANSPORT
Moved by pipeline, ship, rail, or truck to storage/utilisation site
STORE / USE
Injected 1 km+ underground into saline aquifers, depleted oil fields OR converted into concrete, chemicals, fuels
Types of Carbon Capture
Three Types of Carbon Capture — UPSC Essentials
- 1. Post-combustion capture: CO₂ captured from flue gases AFTER fossil fuel is burned. Most applicable to existing coal plants. Uses chemical solvents (amines) to absorb CO₂. Most expensive per tonne captured. Can be retrofitted to existing plants.
- 2. Pre-combustion capture (IGCC): Coal converted to syngas first, CO₂ removed BEFORE combustion. Captures CO₂ more efficiently. Only feasible for new “Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle” (IGCC) power plants. Higher efficiency but higher capital cost.
- 3. Direct Air Capture (DAC or DACCS): Machines pull CO₂ directly from ambient air — concentrations are only 0.04% (420 ppm). Much more expensive than point-source capture (because CO₂ is dilute in air). But can work anywhere and remove historical emissions. Climeworks’ Mammoth plant in Iceland (2024) — world’s largest DAC plant, 36,000 tonnes CO₂/year capacity. Cost ~$1,000/tonne CO₂ today — needs to fall to $100-300 to be scalable.
- 4. Bioenergy with CCS (BECCS): Grow biomass (plants absorb CO₂ from air) → burn it for energy → capture and store the CO₂ from combustion. Result = net negative emissions. IPCC’s 1.5°C pathways assume significant BECCS deployment. Challenge: requires massive land for biomass crops — food vs fuel trade-off.
- 5. Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) with CCS: Captured CO₂ injected into oil fields to push out more oil — and CO₂ stays stored underground. Currently used by ~80% of CCS projects. Controversy: produces more fossil fuel while claiming to capture carbon.
🔴 India CCUS — Current Affairs 2024-2025
- India’s first R&D Roadmap for CCUS: Launched December 2, 2025 by Department of Science & Technology (DST) — strategic, technological, and regulatory roadmap supporting India’s net-zero by 2070 target
- India’s CCUS target: 750 million metric tonnes per year capacity by 2050 (NITI Aayog framework)
- India’s first geological CO₂ storage borewell: NTPC started India’s first geological CO₂ storage borewell in Jharkhand in 2025 — a landmark step for subsurface carbon storage research in India
- ONGC CCS pilot: ONGC launched its first CCS pilot at the Gandhar oilfield, Gujarat — injecting CO₂ into depleted oil wells. Combined Enhanced Oil Recovery with geological storage.
- Tata Steel CCUS pilot: Commissioned a CCUS pilot plant at Jamshedpur — targeting hard-to-abate industrial emissions in the steel sector
- JSW Steel CCUS pilot: Commissioned at Dolvi — another steel sector CCUS deployment
- CCU Testbeds — Cement Sector: India launched its first cluster of five CCU testbeds for cement (under PPP model): Oxygen-enhanced Calcination (converting CO₂ into concrete blocks and olefins) | Carbon-negative Mineralisation (locking CO₂ into rock) | Vacuum Swing Adsorption (separating CO₂ from cement kiln gases)
- National Centres of Excellence (CoE): Two National Centres of Excellence in Carbon Capture and Utilisation (CCU) being established under DST
- India’s status: No major operational commercial CCS projects yet. Limited infrastructure. But active R&D phase underway.
Global CCUS Status 2024 — Key Data
- Operational projects: 228 operational carbon capture projects globally (as of spring 2024, Global CCS Institute)
- Pipeline: Over 1,000 projects in various stages of development
- Capture capacity: Global CCS capacity ~50 MTCO₂/year operational — vs 36+ billion tonnes emitted annually. Still a drop in the ocean.
- First project ever: Sleipner, Norway (1996) — captures CO₂ from natural gas processing, injects into deep saline aquifer under North Sea. 24 million tonnes captured over 28 years.
- Most CCS captures only ~50% of CO₂ — far below 95% required for meaningful climate benefit
- Critical concern: ~80% of existing CCS projects use captured CO₂ for Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) — which actually produces MORE fossil fuel, undermining climate benefit
- Asia CCS concern (Climate Analytics report): Asia’s CCS plans (China, Japan, South Korea, Indonesia) could result in nearly 25 billion additional tonnes GHG by 2050 — because CCS is being used to extend coal/gas plant lifetimes rather than phase them out
- Hard-to-abate sectors: CCS remains genuinely essential for steel, cement, chemicals — where no purely electrical alternative exists. IPCC calls CCS critical for industrial decarbonisation.
3
Carbon Sink, Carbon Source & Carbon Sequestration
Forests absorb 2.6 billion tonnes of CO₂/year · Oceans absorb ~26% of all CO₂ emitted · Both are weakening under climate change
| Concept | Definition | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Carbon Sink | Reservoir that absorbs MORE CO₂ from the atmosphere than it releases | Healthy forests, oceans, soil, peatlands, mangroves, seagrass beds |
| Carbon Source | Reservoir that releases MORE CO₂ into the atmosphere than it absorbs | Burning fossil fuels, deforestation, decomposing organic matter, volcanoes, degraded peatlands |
| Carbon Sequestration | The process of capturing and storing CO₂ from the atmosphere — either naturally or artificially | Natural: photosynthesis, ocean dissolution. Artificial: CCUS, DAC, enhanced weathering |
| Carbon Reservoir | Place where carbon is stored | Atmosphere, ocean (largest), terrestrial biosphere, lithosphere (fossil fuels, rocks) |
| Net Carbon Neutrality | Releasing no more CO₂ than you sequester | India’s net-zero target by 2070 means achieving carbon neutrality across the economy |
Forests as Carbon Sinks
Forests — Earth’s Green Lungs
- Global forests absorb approximately 2.6 billion tonnes of CO₂ per year — about 7% of annual human emissions
- Tropical forests (Amazon, Congo, Southeast Asia) are the most carbon-dense. Boreal forests (Siberia, Canada, Scandinavia) store massive carbon in soil and permafrost.
- Forest-to-source: When forests degrade or burn, they become carbon SOURCES. Tropical deforestation releases ~10-15% of global CO₂ emissions. Amazon is now a net CO₂ SOURCE in heavily deforested eastern regions (2021 study).
- India’s forest carbon target: Additional carbon sink of 2.5-3 billion tonnes CO₂ equivalent by 2030 (NDC). Requires restoring 24.7 million hectares of forest/tree cover (connects to GIM, CAMPA, Aravalli Green Wall).
- ISFR 2023: India’s forest cover = 21.76% of geographical area (71.61 million hectares) — below the 33% target. Total carbon stock in Indian forests: 7,285 million tonnes
- REDD+: Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation — international mechanism to pay developing countries for protecting forests. India participates in REDD+.
Oceans as Carbon Sinks
Oceans — The Biggest Carbon Sink on Earth
- Oceans absorb approximately 26% of all CO₂ emitted by humans annually — ~10 billion tonnes CO₂/year
- Two mechanisms: Physical solubility pump (cold water dissolves more CO₂; deep ocean circulation sinks this carbon) + Biological pump (phytoplankton absorb CO₂ through photosynthesis → die and sink to ocean floor, carrying carbon with them)
- Blue carbon ecosystems: Mangroves, seagrasses, and salt marshes sequester carbon far more efficiently per hectare than terrestrial forests. Called “blue carbon” — critical for coastal developing countries including India.
- Ocean acidification: As oceans absorb more CO₂, they become more acidic (pH falling from 8.2 to 8.1 — a 30% increase in acidity). This threatens coral reefs, molluscs, and the very phytoplankton that drive the biological pump. A weakening sink is a dangerous feedback loop.
- Warming weakens the sink: Warmer water absorbs less CO₂. Climate change could reduce ocean carbon uptake by 20-30% by 2100 — a critical climate tipping point.
- Soil carbon: World’s soils contain ~1,500-2,400 billion tonnes of organic carbon — more than all plants and atmosphere combined. Soil conservation and restoration is critical climate mitigation. India’s Soil Health Cards programme contributes to maintaining soil carbon.
4
Geoengineering — Deliberate Manipulation of Earth’s Climate System
Two categories: Solar Radiation Management (SRM) and Greenhouse Gas Removal (GGR) · No international governance yet
💡 Geoengineering = Emergency Surgery vs Healthy Living
If climate mitigation (cutting emissions) is like eating healthy and exercising to prevent heart disease, then geoengineering is like emergency surgery. It might be necessary if we’ve already had a heart attack (gone past 1.5°C), but surgery doesn’t address why you had the heart attack in the first place. Geoengineering can mask the effects of climate change — but cannot reduce CO₂ concentrations. Stop geoengineering suddenly, and temperatures “rebound” rapidly — possibly worse than if you’d never started. Scientists call this the “termination shock”.
Category 1: Solar Radiation Management (SRM) — Reflect Sunlight Back to Space
🌋
Stratospheric Aerosol Injection (SAI)
Most researched SRM method
Inject sulphate aerosols (SO₂/H₂SO₄) into stratosphere at 15-25 km altitude → reflect ~1-2% of sunlight back to space → cool Earth. Inspired by volcanic eruptions: Mt Pinatubo (1991) erupted, injected 20 million tonnes SO₂, cooled Earth by 0.5°C for 18 months. Cost: ~$18 billion/year per 1°C of cooling. IPCC’s “most researched SRM method with high agreement it could limit warming to below 1.5°C.” Risk: disrupts monsoon patterns, reduces precipitation globally (major India concern), depletes ozone layer. India concern: Indian scientists studying SAI’s impact on monsoon — 2024 study found sulphate injection reduces tropical precipitation at all altitudes.
☁️
Marine Cloud Brightening (MCB)
Sea salt · Cloud reflectivity
Spray sea salt particles into low marine clouds over oceans → more cloud droplets → brighter (more reflective) clouds → reflect more sunlight. Lower risk than SAI (local, reversible, no ozone depletion). 2024: University of Washington MCB experiment in San Francisco Bay lasted only 20 minutes before Alameda City officials shut it down for lack of transparency. Florida (2025) and Tennessee (2024) passed laws banning solar geoengineering. CBD moratorium on deployment (2010, reaffirmed 2024).
❄️
Cirrus Cloud Thinning (CCT)
Infrared radiation escape
Cirrus clouds (high altitude ice clouds) trap outgoing infrared radiation — contributing to warming. Seeding them with particles causes ice crystals to grow larger → clouds thin or dissipate → more heat escapes to space. Unlike other SRM methods, doesn’t reduce incoming sunlight but allows outgoing heat to escape. UPSC 2025 prelims asked about this technique — high-relevance topic.
🏙️
Cool Roofs / Urban Albedo
Local cooling · White surfaces
Paint roofs and roads white or light colours → increase urban surface albedo (reflectivity) → less heat absorbed. Reduces urban heat island effect locally. India’s Cool Roof Programme — implemented in Ahmedabad (first city in India and Asia). Reduces indoor temperatures by 2-4°C, cutting AC energy use. Limited global cooling effect but significant local benefit for cities.
Category 2: Greenhouse Gas Removal (GGR) / Carbon Geoengineering — Remove CO₂ from Atmosphere
🌿
BECCS — Bioenergy with CCS
Net-negative emissions · IPCC pathway
Grow bioenergy crops (sugarcane, miscanthus) → burn for electricity or biofuel → capture and store CO₂ from combustion. Net-negative because plants absorb CO₂ while growing, more CO₂ captured and stored than released. IPCC 1.5°C pathways assume significant BECCS. Risks: massive land requirement (could displace food crops, forests), water-intensive, biodiversity impacts. 2025 debate: BECCS land requirements could equal India’s total agricultural area — not feasible without major trade-offs.
🏭
Direct Air Capture (DAC/DACCS)
Artificial removal · Expensive
Machines with chemical solvents/sorbents suck CO₂ from ambient air → concentrate → compress → store underground. Works anywhere, any time. Climeworks’ Mammoth plant, Iceland (2024): world’s largest DAC plant, capacity 36,000 tonnes CO₂/year. Cost: ~$1,000/tonne today — needs to fall below $100-300 to scale. India’s DST supports DAC research as part of CCUS R&D Roadmap 2025.
🌲
Forests / Afforestation / Reforestation
Cheapest GGR · India’s NDC
Planting trees to absorb atmospheric CO₂. Most cost-effective carbon removal method. IPCC calls this “Natural Climate Solutions.” India’s NDC: 2.5-3 billion tonnes CO₂ sink by 2030 through forests and tree cover. Risks: monoculture plantations can harm biodiversity; trees can die and release carbon (fires, pests); not permanent.
🪨
Enhanced Weathering
Rock dust · Soil carbon
Grinding silicate rocks (basalt) → spreading over farmland → rocks naturally react with CO₂ and water → CO₂ chemically locked in soil. Also improves soil fertility. Natural weathering rate is too slow for climate purposes — but accelerated by grinding. Still in experimental stage. India’s black basalt soils in Deccan Plateau region are relevant geological context.
🌊
Ocean Iron Fertilisation
Controversial · Phytoplankton
Iron is often the limiting nutrient for phytoplankton growth in open oceans. Adding iron → phytoplankton bloom → absorb CO₂ → die and sink (biological pump). CBD has imposed a moratorium on large-scale ocean iron fertilisation due to unknown ecological impacts. Can cause algae blooms, dead zones, disrupt marine ecosystems. Research-only stage globally.
🌾
Biochar
Soil amendment · Carbon lock-in
Organic material (agricultural waste, wood) heated to 400-700°C in low-oxygen environment → charcoal-like material called biochar. Mixed into soil → persists for centuries → locks carbon. Also improves soil water retention and fertility. Being tested in several Indian states under natural farming programmes. Win-win: climate benefit + agricultural benefit.
🔴 Geoengineering Governance — Current Affairs 2024-2025
- No international framework exists as of mid-2025 for governing solar geoengineering research or deployment (US EPA acknowledgement, July 2025)
- CBD moratorium (2010, reaffirmed 2024 — decision XI/20): Convention on Biological Diversity reaffirmed moratorium on deployment of geoengineering activities that may affect biodiversity — covers ocean fertilisation and large-scale SRM
- EU moratorium proposal (December 2024): EU’s Scientific Advisory Panel recommended an “EU-wide moratorium on use of SRM” — calling for research on full range of effects and unintended impacts before any deployment
- US state bans: Florida (2025) and Tennessee (2024) passed laws banning intentional modification of sunlight, weather, or temperature. Arizona, Montana, Texas, Pennsylvania considering similar laws.
- India’s geoengineering research: Indian scientists from IISc (Bangalore) and IITs are studying SAI’s impacts on Indian monsoon — showing interest in assessing feasibility and risks rather than deployment. 2024 study found sulphate SAI reduces precipitation across all tropical altitudes.
- Make Sunsets controversy (2022-2023): Company launched SO₂-filled balloons from Mexico without permission — Mexico government announced plans to ban outdoor solar geoengineering experimentation. Example of “rogue geoengineering” risk.
- Key risk for India: India depends on the Southwest Monsoon for 70% of its annual rainfall and nearly all agricultural water. SAI could disrupt the Asian Summer Monsoon — making geoengineering a matter of food security and national security for India.
5
Coal Phase-out / Phase-down — The Battle at Every COP COP26–COP30
“Phaseout” vs “Phasedown” — a single word that divided the world at Glasgow
💡 Phaseout vs Phasedown — Why One Word Matters So Much
“Phaseout” means completely ending coal use — setting a date by which all coal power plants will be closed. “Phasedown” means gradually reducing coal use — without committing to stop completely. At COP26 Glasgow (2021), negotiators came within hours of agreeing to “phaseout” of coal. Then India and China objected at the last minute — changing the word to “phasedown of unabated coal.” This word change preserved coal’s future for countries still developing their energy systems. India argued: developed countries industrialised for 200 years using coal — we’ve had 70. We need more time and finance to transition.
| COP | Key Coal Outcome | India’s Position |
|---|---|---|
| COP21 Paris 2015 | No specific coal mention. NDC framework adopted — India committed to 40% non-fossil capacity by 2030 (later raised to 50%) | Supported Paris Agreement. Submitted ambitious NDC on renewables and emissions intensity |
| COP26 Glasgow 2021 | “Phasedown of unabated coal” agreed — India pushed for “phasedown” instead of “phaseout” at last minute. Historic first time coal explicitly mentioned in COP text. “Inefficient fossil fuel subsidies” also targeted. | India argued for right to develop. “Phasedown” text was India’s negotiating success. India also announced net zero by 2070 and 500 GW non-fossil target. |
| COP27 Sharm el-Sheikh 2022 | “Loss & Damage” fund established. Coal phasedown language maintained. Climate finance focus. | India supported L&D fund. Pushed for finance commitments from developed nations. |
| COP28 Dubai 2023 | First Global Stocktake completed. Agreed to “transition away from fossil fuels” — first time all fossil fuels mentioned. Tripling renewables by 2030 + doubling energy efficiency pledged. No “phaseout” of coal. | India signed the “transition away from fossil fuels” text but resisted binding coal phaseout. Argued developing nations need flexibility. |
| COP29 Baku 2024 | Climate finance: New Collective Quantified Goal (NCQG) — $300 billion/year by 2035 from developed to developing nations (India and others wanted $1 trillion+). Coal phasedown language maintained. | India expressed disappointment at “inadequate” $300 billion — said it falls far short of the $1 trillion+ needed. Did not submit new NDC before COP29. |
| COP30 Belém 2025 | India missed NDC 3.0 submission deadline. Under pressure from UNEP EGR 2025 findings (India = highest absolute GHG rise). Coal phaseout debate continues. | India remains committed to “phasedown” position. Argues climate finance must come first for any accelerated transition. |
🔴 Global Coal Phase-out Progress 2024-2025
- UK phased out coal completely in 2024 — closed its last coal power station. UK was a pioneer — first major economy to end coal-fired power generation
- Ireland phased out coal in June 2025
- Nine more EU countries expected to phase out coal by 2029 (including Spain, France, Netherlands)
- All but 3 EU countries plan to phase out coal by 2033
- China: 46 GW new coal construction starts in H1 2025 alone — on track to match record 97 GW coal construction starts in 2024. China accounts for 60%+ of global new coal capacity.
- India: Record 38.4 GW new coal plant proposals in 2024 | Over 92 GW proposed as of mid-2025 | Coal retirements only 0.2 GW in 2024 and 2023 | CEA guidance: no thermal capacity retirement until 2030
- India + China: Together account for 87% of all new coal power capacity built so far in 2025 (Carbon Brief, September 2025)
- IEA position: Coal should be virtually phased out in advanced economies by 2030 and rest of world by 2040 to keep warming below 1.5°C
- India’s counter-argument: “Just Transition” — rapid coal exit without alternatives and finance would destroy millions of livelihoods and energy security. Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh conducting “Just Transition” studies for coal-reliant workers and districts.
6
Climate Smart Cities — Fighting the Urban Heat Island
Cities cover 3% of land but produce 70%+ of global GHG emissions
💡 Why Cities Are Both the Problem and the Solution
Urban heat islands (UHI) make cities 2-8°C hotter than surrounding rural areas. Dark pavements and rooftops absorb heat, concrete stores it, AC units dump hot air, vehicles exhaust heat. India has 53 cities with over 1 million population — projected to double by 2050. Cities account for >70% of global GHG emissions. But the same density that makes cities emissions-heavy also makes them efficient — one flat-dweller emits far less than one suburban homeowner. Dense, well-planned cities with good public transport are actually the most sustainable human settlement pattern possible.
Urban Heat Island (UHI) — Causes and Mitigation
- Causes of UHI: Dark materials (asphalt, concrete) absorb 80-95% of solar radiation vs vegetation which absorbs 20-60% | Lack of vegetation removes evaporative cooling | Dense buildings trap radiated heat | Waste heat from AC, vehicles, industry | “Urban canyon” effect — buildings prevent heat from radiating out to sky at night
- Cool Roofs: Painting roofs white/light colours increases albedo (reflectivity) by 0.5-0.7. Ahmedabad Cool Roof Programme (India’s first): reduces indoor temperatures by 2-4°C, cuts cooling energy by 15-30%. Now replicated in Chennai, Hyderabad. India’s National Action Plan on Heat (NAPH) 2024 promotes cool roofs nationwide.
- Urban Forestry / Green Infrastructure: Street trees reduce surrounding air temperature by 2-8°C (through shading and evapotranspiration). Green roofs, vertical gardens, urban parks. Delhi’s Ridge forest, Mumbai’s mangroves — natural temperature regulators under threat.
- Permeable Pavements: Allow rainwater to percolate into ground → reduces flooding + groundwater recharge + reduces heat (water evaporates from soil, cooling surface). India’s cities pave over natural drainage systems → waterlogging + UHI.
- District Cooling: Centralised cooling for entire urban districts (vs individual ACs) — 50-60% more energy efficient. Singapore’s Marina Bay District Cooling System is the global case study. India piloting district cooling in smart cities.
- Passive Cooling Architecture: Traditional Indian architecture (courtyards, thick walls, wind towers, latticed screens/jaalis, stepwells/baoris) were brilliant passive cooling systems. Modern architecture can revive these with updated materials. Zero-energy cooling cities are the goal.
- Urban Heat Action Plans: Ahmedabad Heat Action Plan (2013) — world’s first city heat action plan. Later replicated in Rajkot, Surat, Vadodara, Chennai, Bhubaneswar. Includes: early warning systems, cooling centres, public awareness, hospital preparedness.
🔴 India Climate Smart Cities — Key Schemes
- Smart Cities Mission (2015-present): 100 cities selected. Includes smart infrastructure, clean energy, green spaces, efficient public transport. Climate resilience built into city planning.
- Climate Smart Cities Assessment Framework (CSCAF): Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs. Assesses 126 cities on 28 indicators across energy, urban planning, mobility, water, waste, air quality. Identifies gaps and tracks progress.
- PM Surya Ghar Muft Bijli Yojana (2024): Rooftop solar for 10 million households by 2027. 1.2 million households installed in just 5 months in 2025. Reduces grid demand and cooling costs simultaneously.
- National Heat Action Plans: India’s National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) issued heat wave guidelines. 130+ cities have city-level heat action plans. 2024 was India’s hottest year on record — extreme heat killed thousands.
- AMRUT 2.0 (Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation): Water supply, sewage, green spaces in 500 cities — contributes to urban climate resilience.
- Singapore case study: “Garden City” vision — 47% of Singapore’s land area covered by greenery despite being a dense city. District cooling at Marina Bay. Mandatory Green Building standards. Night-time cooling through parks and water bodies. India can adapt Singapore’s tropical context lessons.
7
Transition to Green Economy — Markets, Pricing & Carbon Finance
India’s Carbon Credit Trading Scheme · Green Hydrogen Mission · PAT Scheme · Green Finance
What Is a Green Economy?
- A green economy is one that results in improved human well-being and social equity while reducing environmental risks and ecological scarcities (UNEP definition). It is low-carbon, resource-efficient, and socially inclusive.
- Key principle: Economic growth decoupled from GHG emissions and resource depletion. GDP can grow while emissions fall — “absolute decoupling.”
- UNEP Green Economy Initiative: Estimates that investing 2% of global GDP in green sectors could generate growth equal to or greater than business-as-usual while reducing climate and ecological risks.
India’s Key Green Economy Instruments
🔴 Indian Carbon Market — Major Current Affairs 2022-2025
- Energy Conservation (Amendment) Act 2022: Amended India’s Energy Conservation Act to provide the legal framework for establishing a Carbon Market. Introduced concept of “Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS).”
- Indian Carbon Market (ICM): India’s domestic carbon market — operationalised (piloting phase) 2025. Regulated by Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) under Ministry of Power, in coordination with MoEFCC.
- How it works: Industries that reduce emissions below a set benchmark earn Carbon Credit Certificates (CCCs) → can sell to those who can’t meet their targets. Cap-and-trade system. Initial focus: 4 heavy industries (cement, steel, petrochemicals, pulp & paper)
- Green Credit Programme (2023): Separate voluntary programme (not the same as carbon credits). Entities earn “Green Credits” for activities like afforestation, water conservation, sustainable agriculture, waste management → can be traded on domestic market.
- Difference from CCTS: CCTS is mandatory for energy-intensive industries (like EU-ETS). Green Credit Programme is voluntary — any individual, community, or company can participate. Climate Scorecard notes ICM operationalisation as a key achievement for India in 2025.
- PAT Scheme (Perform, Achieve, Trade): India’s existing energy efficiency trading scheme. Industries get energy savings targets → those who overachieve get Energy Savings Certificates (ESCerts) → trade with those who underachieve. Precursor to the full ICM. Covers most energy-intensive sectors.
| Scheme/Initiative | Year | Mechanism | Current Status |
|---|---|---|---|
| PAT (Perform Achieve Trade) | 2012 | Energy efficiency targets + Energy Savings Certificates (ESCerts) trading | Active. Multiple cycles completed. 12 energy-intensive sectors covered. |
| Indian Carbon Market (ICM) | 2022 Act / 2025 pilot | Carbon Credit Certificates (CCCs) — mandatory for heavy industries | Piloting in 2025 with 4 sectors. Full rollout planned. |
| Green Credit Programme | 2023 | Voluntary green credits for afforestation, water, waste, sustainable agriculture | Active. Any entity can participate. Can be traded on designated exchange. |
| National Green Hydrogen Mission | 2023 | ₹19,744 crore incentive for green hydrogen production & export | Target 5 MT/year by 2030 | Active. First projects approved. India targeting green hydrogen cost <$1/kg by 2030. |
| PM Surya Ghar Muft Bijli Yojana | 2024 | Rooftop solar subsidy — up to 300 units free electricity/month | 1.2 million households in first 5 months. Target: 10 million by 2027. |
| FAME II / PM E-DRIVE | 2022 / 2024 | EV adoption subsidy. PM E-DRIVE (₹10,900 crore, Oct 2024) expanded EV push. | Active. India’s EV market growing ~50% year-on-year. |
| Sovereign Green Bonds | 2023 | Government bonds to finance green projects. ₹16,000 crore raised in FY 2023-24 | Active. Proceeds fund solar, wind, clean transport, green buildings. |
Green Finance — India’s Framework
- RBI Sustainable Finance Guidelines: Reserve Bank of India (RBI) mandated banks to disclose climate-related financial risks. ESG (Environmental, Social, Governance) reporting gaining traction in Indian financial sector.
- SEBI ESG Disclosure: Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) mandated top 1,000 listed companies to file Business Responsibility and Sustainability Reports (BRSRs) — including carbon footprint, energy use, water consumption disclosures.
- Coal Transition Finance: India needs “Just Transition Finance” — international funding to help coal-dependent states and workers transition to clean energy livelihoods without destroying rural economies.
- Climate Finance Gap: Developing countries need ~$5.3 trillion to meet NDCs (UNEP EGR 2025). India argues that without adequate climate finance from developed nations, accelerated coal phasedown is economically unjust.
⭐ Climate Change Mitigation — Complete Cheat Sheet
- Clean Coal tech: IGCC (gasify coal, cleaner burn) | Supercritical boilers (higher efficiency 45%+) | FGD (removes SO₂) | Coal washing | CBM (capture methane from coal seams) | Biomass co-firing (5% blend)
- India coal 2025: 1.047 billion tonnes produced FY25 — record | 79% of domestic energy supply | 47% of installed power capacity | Coal share of generation: 64% Q1 2025 | Peak use not until 2040 | No new coal without CCS post-2027 (NEP2023) | 92 GW new coal proposed
- CCS vs CCU vs CCUS: CCS = capture + store underground | CCU = capture + utilise in products | CCUS = umbrella term both | DAC = pulls CO₂ from ambient air
- CCUS global: 228 operational (spring 2024) | 1,000+ in pipeline | 80% used for EOR (concern) | Sleipner Norway 1996 = first ever project | Cost most projects capture only 50% CO₂
- India CCUS 2025: DST R&D Roadmap Dec 2, 2025 | NTPC geological CO₂ borewell Jharkhand 2025 | ONGC Gandhar CCS Gujarat | Tata Steel CCUS Jamshedpur | JSW Steel CCUS Dolvi | 5 CCU testbeds cement sector | 2 CoEs under DST | Target 750 MT/year by 2050 | No major operational commercial CCS yet
- Carbon Sink/Source: Sink = absorbs more than it releases | Source = releases more than it absorbs | Forests: 2.6 Bn tonnes CO₂/year absorbed | Oceans: ~26% of all human CO₂ absorbed (biological pump + solubility pump) | Blue carbon: mangroves/seagrass/salt marshes | Ocean acidification: 30% more acidic since industrialisation | India’s forest carbon stock: 7,285 million tonnes (ISFR 2023)
- Geoengineering 2 types: SRM (reflect sunlight back to space) + GGR/CDR (remove CO₂ from atmosphere)
- SRM methods: SAI (sulphate aerosols into stratosphere, mimics Pinatubo, 15-25 km altitude, $18 Bn/year/°C, disrupts monsoon — India concern) | Marine Cloud Brightening (sea salt, local/reversible) | Cirrus Cloud Thinning (let heat escape) | Cool Roofs (Ahmedabad — India’s first)
- GGR/CDR methods: BECCS (biomass + CCS = net negative emissions, IPCC pathway, land-intensive) | DAC (Climeworks Mammoth Iceland 2024, 36,000 t/year, ~$1,000/tonne today) | Afforestation | Enhanced weathering (basalt rock dust) | Biochar | Ocean iron fertilisation (CBD moratorium)
- Geoengineering governance 2024-25: No international framework | CBD moratorium on deployment (2010, reaffirmed 2024) | EU moratorium proposal Dec 2024 | Florida (2025) + Tennessee (2024) banned SRM | MCB experiment shut down California 2024 | India: SAI concerns about monsoon disruption
- Coal phase-out timeline: COP26 Glasgow 2021 = “phasedown of unabated coal” (India changed from phaseout) | COP28 Dubai 2023 = “transition away from fossil fuels” | UK phased out coal 2024 | Ireland phased out June 2025 | 9 EU countries by 2029 | China + India = 87% of new coal capacity 2025
- Climate Smart Cities: UHI = 2-8°C hotter than rural | Cool Roofs (Ahmedabad first in India) | Ahmedabad Heat Action Plan 2013 (world’s first city heat plan) | CSCAF (126 cities, 28 indicators) | Smart Cities Mission (100 cities) | PM Surya Ghar (1.2 million households in 5 months)
- Green Economy India: Indian Carbon Market (ICM) — operationalised 2025, 4 sectors | Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS) under Energy Conservation Amendment Act 2022 | Green Credit Programme 2023 (voluntary) | PAT Scheme — Energy Savings Certificates | National Green Hydrogen Mission (₹19,744 crore, 5 MT by 2030) | Sovereign Green Bonds (₹16,000 crore FY24) | SEBI BRSR mandatory for top 1,000 listed companies
🧪 Practice MCQs
Q1. Consider the following statements about India’s Carbon Capture, Utilisation and Storage (CCUS) developments:
1. India launched its first R&D Roadmap for CCUS on December 2, 2025.
2. NTPC started India’s first geological CO₂ storage borewell in Rajasthan in 2025.
3. ONGC launched its first CCS pilot at the Gandhar oilfield in Gujarat.
4. India aims for a CCUS capacity of 750 million metric tonnes per year by 2050.
Which are CORRECT?
✅ Answer: (b) — 1, 3 and 4 are correct. Statement 2 has the wrong state.
1 ✅: India’s Department of Science & Technology (DST) launched the country’s first R&D Roadmap for CCUS on December 2, 2025, to support India’s net-zero by 2070 target. This was a landmark policy development for India’s CCUS sector. 2 ❌ Wrong state: NTPC started India’s first geological CO₂ storage borewell in Jharkhand in 2025 — not Rajasthan. This is a common trap — confusing the state. Jharkhand is India’s major coal state and a logical location for geological CO₂ storage research linked to coal plant emissions. 3 ✅: ONGC launched its first CCS pilot at the Gandhar oilfield in Gujarat — injecting CO₂ into depleted oil wells, combining Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) with carbon storage. Gujarat’s depleted Gandhar oilfield is a natural CO₂ storage site. 4 ✅: NITI Aayog’s CCUS policy framework sets a target of 750 million metric tonnes per year CCUS capacity by 2050 — aligned with India’s net-zero by 2070 target. This is ambitious given current minimal infrastructure.
Q2. “Stratospheric Aerosol Injection (SAI)” is considered a high-risk geoengineering approach for India primarily because of which of the following reasons?
✅ Answer: (b) — Disruption of Asian Summer Monsoon
India’s primary concern with Stratospheric Aerosol Injection (SAI) — injecting sulphate aerosols into the stratosphere at 15-25 km altitude to reflect 1-2% of incoming solar radiation — is its potential to disrupt the Asian Summer Monsoon. The monsoon is driven by the differential heating between the Indian subcontinent and the Indian Ocean. SAI reduces this differential heating by cooling the land surface → weakens the land-sea temperature gradient → weakens monsoon circulation. Indian scientists studying SAI impacts (IISc, IIT researchers) found in a 2024 study that sulphate aerosol injection at various stratospheric altitudes consistently reduces tropical precipitation. Since India depends on the Southwest Monsoon for 70% of annual rainfall and virtually all agricultural water, any disruption would be catastrophic for food security and 800+ million dependent farmers. (a) Wrong: SAI doesn’t selectively target equatorial zones, and the crop growth concern is indirect. (c) Wrong: SAI actually risks depleting (not thickening) the ozone layer — sulphate aerosols catalyse ozone-destroying reactions. (d) Wrong: No such mechanism exists — SAI doesn’t directly affect ocean evaporation enough to change soil salinity.
Q3. Regarding coal phase-out efforts globally, which of the following is CORRECT?
1. The UK completed its coal phase-out in 2024.
2. Ireland phased out coal in June 2025.
3. At COP26 Glasgow, the agreed language was “phaseout of unabated coal.”
4. India and China together accounted for 87% of new coal power capacity in H1 2025.
✅ Answer: (d) — 1, 2 and 4 are correct. Statement 3 has the wrong word.
1 ✅: The United Kingdom closed its last coal-fired power station in 2024 — completing its coal phase-out and becoming the first G7 nation and major economy to exit coal power entirely. UK coal was once the backbone of the industrial revolution. 2 ✅: Ireland followed, phasing out coal power in June 2025. Nine more EU countries are expected to complete coal phase-outs through 2029. 3 ❌ Wrong word — UPSC TRAP: At COP26 Glasgow (November 2021), the agreed language was “phasedown of unabated coal” — NOT “phaseout.” This single word difference was the most contentious outcome of Glasgow. India and China pushed for “phasedown” at the last minute, successfully replacing “phaseout.” India’s Environment Minister Bhupender Yadav announced the amendment on the final day. This distinction is critical — “phasedown” does not commit to ending coal completely, only to gradually reducing it. 4 ✅: China and India together accounted for approximately 87% of all new coal power capacity built in H1 2025, according to Carbon Brief’s analysis (September 2025). China had 46 GW construction starts; India had 5.1 GW commissioned in H1 2025 alone — already exceeding all of 2024.
📜 UPSC Previous Year Questions (PYQs)
Artificial way of causing rainfall to reduce air pollution makes use of: [UPSC Prelims 2025]
(Also related) — “In the context of which of the following do some scientists suggest the use of cirrus cloud thinning technique and the injection of sulphate aerosol into the stratosphere?”
✅ Answer: (c) — Solar Geoengineering / Climate Change Mitigation
This is from UPSC 2025 Prelims — a direct test of geoengineering knowledge. Both techniques — cirrus cloud thinning and stratospheric aerosol injection (SAI) — are methods of Solar Radiation Management (SRM), which falls under Solar Geoengineering or climate change mitigation through deliberate climate intervention. Cirrus Cloud Thinning (CCT): High altitude ice clouds (cirrus) trap outgoing longwave (infrared) radiation, contributing to warming. Seeding them with particles causes ice crystals to grow larger → clouds thin → more heat escapes to space. This is an outgoing radiation management approach. Stratospheric Aerosol Injection (SAI): Injecting sulphate aerosols (derived from SO₂) into stratosphere at 15-25 km altitude → aerosols reflect incoming solar radiation → net cooling effect. Mimics large volcanic eruptions. Both techniques are part of Solar Geoengineering — they attempt to directly intervene in the climate system’s radiation balance, unlike mitigation (which cuts emissions) or adaptation (which adjusts to impacts). Key distinction: These are NOT carbon sequestration (which removes CO₂) and NOT adaptation (which adjusts to existing climate change). They are active geoengineering interventions.
In the context of mitigating the impending global warming due to anthropogenic emissions of carbon dioxide, which of the following can be the potential sites for carbon sequestration?
1. Abandoned and uneconomic coal seams
2. Depleted oil and gas reservoirs
3. Subterranean deep saline formations
Select the correct answer:
✅ Official Answer: (d) — All three are potential carbon sequestration sites
This classic UPSC question tests geological knowledge of CCS storage sites. All three are viable: 1 ✅ Abandoned and uneconomic coal seams: CO₂ can be injected into deep, unminable coal seams. CO₂ binds to the coal and displaces methane (Coal Bed Methane — CBM). The displaced methane can be captured and used as energy. This is called “Enhanced Coal Bed Methane Recovery (ECBMR).” India has large coal reserves, including deep, uneconomic seams — making this relevant for future Indian CCS. 2 ✅ Depleted oil and gas reservoirs: These natural geological formations have held oil/gas for millions of years, proving their impermeability. Once the hydrocarbons are removed, the porous rock formations can store CO₂. This is used in Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) — injecting CO₂ pushes residual oil out while storing the CO₂. ONGC’s Gandhar field in Gujarat is exactly this type of site. The Sleipner project (Norway, 1996) uses a depleted natural gas reservoir. 3 ✅ Subterranean deep saline formations (saline aquifers): Deep saline aquifers (containing saltwater, not freshwater) are the most abundant and widely distributed geological CO₂ storage sites. CO₂ dissolves in brine over time and eventually mineralises permanently. The Sleipner project (world’s first CCS, 1996) stores CO₂ in a deep saline aquifer under the North Sea. India has large saline aquifer potential along its western coast.
Consider the following agricultural practices:
1. Contour bunding
2. Relay cropping
3. Zero tillage
In the context of global climate change, which of the above helps/help in carbon sequestration/storage in the soil?
✅ Official Answer: (d) — All three practices help in soil carbon sequestration
All three agricultural practices help sequester carbon in soil — connecting agricultural knowledge to climate change mitigation: 1 ✅ Contour bunding: Building earthen bunds along contour lines on slopes. Reduces soil erosion (prevents carbon-rich topsoil from washing away) → maintains soil organic matter → retains carbon. Also reduces runoff velocity → more water infiltration → moister soil → better conditions for organic matter accumulation → more carbon stored. Connected to land degradation prevention. 2 ✅ Relay cropping: Growing two crops simultaneously, with the second planted before the first is harvested. One crop is often a legume (fixes nitrogen, reduces need for synthetic fertiliser). Greater biomass production → more organic matter returned to soil → more carbon stored. Continuous soil cover prevents carbon loss through oxidation. Healthier soil ecosystem. 3 ✅ Zero tillage (No-till farming): Not ploughing or tilling the soil before planting. Conventional tillage breaks up soil → oxygen enters → soil microbes rapidly decompose organic matter → releases CO₂. Zero tillage preserves soil structure, maintains fungal networks (mycorrhizae), reduces decomposition rate → carbon stays in soil longer. Also reduces erosion and fuel use (from tractors). This is one of the most cost-effective large-scale carbon sequestration methods available globally. India’s ZBNF (Zero Budget Natural Farming) and various state programmes increasingly promote zero tillage.
❓ Frequently Asked Questions
This is one of India’s most important climate policy questions — and UPSC loves it as a Mains essay/answer topic. Genuine structural barriers (not just politics): (1) Scale: India’s coal sector is vastly larger. UK had <5 GW of coal capacity when it phased out; India has >200 GW. UK’s coal exit took decades and is still recent. India would need to retire 200+ GW while meeting rapidly growing electricity demand. (2) Employment: India’s coal sector employs ~3.6 million people directly and many more indirectly in 159 districts. UK’s deindustrialisation caused decades of social trauma in Wales and Northern England — India cannot repeat this at 10× the scale without massive “just transition” programmes and funding. (3) Energy security: UK is well-integrated into European energy grids, can import electricity from France (nuclear), and has excellent North Sea wind resources. India has limited interconnections with neighbours. Coal provides baseload power stability that India’s current grid cannot replace quickly enough. (4) Finance: India’s renewables investment needs to be $223 billion+ by 2030 (Bloomberg estimates). International climate finance has consistently fallen short. The COP29 NCQG pledged $300 billion by 2035 — India said this was far too little. Without this finance, asking India to phase out coal is asking it to pay for developed countries’ historical emissions. (5) Technology timeline: Battery storage needed to back up solar/wind when the sun doesn’t shine and wind doesn’t blow is still too expensive and limited for India’s scale. Grid flexibility takes years to build. (6) India’s position: India argues CBDR (Common But Differentiated Responsibilities) — developed nations industrialised for 200 years on coal and their historical cumulative emissions caused most of current warming. India has industrialised for only 70 years. A per-capita equitable distribution of the remaining carbon budget gives India the right to use more fossil fuels than it currently does. The answer isn’t “India should keep burning coal forever” — it’s “India needs adequate finance and technology support before it can safely and quickly exit coal.”
Legacy IAS — UPSC Civil Services Coaching, Bangalore |
Sources: Drishti IAS — CCUS/CCU/CCS analysis (2025); Khan Global Studies — CCUS India 2025; IAS Parliament — CCUS R&D Roadmap Dec 2, 2025; Dalvoy.com — India CCUS 750 MT target 2050; Climate Action Tracker — India coal 47% capacity 2024, NDC analysis; Down To Earth — India coal dominant FY25 (Energy Statistics India 2026); Carbon Brief — China+India 87% new coal H1 2025 (September 2025); Climate Scorecard — India 2025 Mid-Year Report (ICM operationalised); Ember Energy — India solar 23.8 GW record FY25; EPA — Solar geoengineering governance (July 2025); India Mongabay — Indian scientists and solar geoengineering research (November 2024); NOAA/NSF — SAI research guidelines 2024; Wikipedia — Stratospheric Aerosol Injection; IPCC AR6 — CCS and GGR pathways; Sleipner (1996) and Climeworks Mammoth (2024) CCS/DAC project data.
