The Beginnings of Indian Civilisation
Big Questions & Opening Context
- What is a civilisation?
- What was the earliest civilisation of the Indian Subcontinent?
- What were its major achievements?
Fig. 6.1 (chapter opening image, not separately uploaded) shows the North Gate entrance to Dholavira's 'Castle' area — evidence of sophisticated stone-based construction unique to Dholavira.
B.B. Lal (noted Indian archaeologist) described the Harappan civilisation as showing how "a well-balanced community lives — in which the differences between the rich and the poor are not glaring." The Harappan societal scenario was not of 'exploitation' but of mutual 'accommodation'.
This implies the IVC was a relatively egalitarian society — wealth gaps were not extreme. This is supported by the uniform quality of construction in small and big houses.
What Is a Civilisation? — 7 Characteristics
A civilisation is an advanced stage of human societies. The NCERT specifies that a civilisation must have at least the following 7 characteristics:
Which of the 7 characteristics is most fundamental — essential to the development of all others? Suggested answer: Agriculture, because without surplus food, none of the other activities (crafts, trade, administration) would be possible.
For each of the 7 characteristics, list professions that might exist. Example: Government → administrator, tax collector, soldier; Crafts → potter, metalworker, bead-maker; Trade → merchant, boatman, weight-keeper; Writing → scribe; Agriculture → farmer, irrigation worker.
All Sidebar Definitions — Exam Critical
World Civilisations Timeline — Fig. 6.2
| Mesopotamian Civilisation | ~4000 BCE (modern Iraq and Syria) — about 6,000 years ago |
| Egyptian Civilisation | ~3000 BCE — a few centuries after Mesopotamia |
| Indus-Sarasvatī Civilisation | ~2600 to 1900 BCE (urban phase) |
In many ways, humanity would not have reached its present stage without the enormous contributions and advances of those ancient civilisations. Our story begins in the northwest region of the Indian Subcontinent.
For each of the 7 characteristics of civilisation, can you make a list of professions or occupations that might exist in such a society?
From Village to City — Origins
The vast plains of Punjab (divided between India and Pakistan) and Sindh (now in Pakistan) are watered by the Indus River and its tributaries. This made those plains fertile and favourable to agriculture.
A little further east, a few millenniums ago, another river — the Sarasvatī — used to flow from the foothills of the Himalayas through Haryana, Punjab, parts of Rajasthan and Gujarat.
| ~3500 BCE | Villages grew into towns in the Punjab-Sindh-Sarasvatī region |
| ~2600 BCE | Towns grew into cities — Transition to Urban Phase begins |
| ~1900 BCE | Cities begin to be abandoned — Decline begins |
Archaeologists gave this civilisation several names:
Its inhabitants are called 'Harappans'. It is one of the oldest civilisations in the world.
Don't Miss Out — Why 'Harappans'? & First Urbanisation
Why called 'Harappans'? The city of Harappa (today in Pakistan's Punjab) was the first of this civilisation to be excavated, in 1920–21 — over a century ago.
First Urbanisation of India: The growth of villages into towns into cities is also called the 'First Urbanisation of India'.
Why not 'Indus Valley'? The term 'Indus Valley civilisation' is now obsolete — the civilisation extended far beyond the Indus Valley into the Sarasvatī basin, Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Haryana.
| 1920–21 | Harappa excavated — first site of this civilisation discovered (Pakistan's Punjab) |
| 1924 | Harappa and Mohenjo-daro formally identified as a single civilisation |
| Later | Dholavira (Gujarat), Rakhigarhi (Haryana), Ganweriwala (Cholistan), and hundreds more discovered |
| Today | Discoveries continue even now! |
Map of Settlements — Fig. 6.3
Major cities (red dots): Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Dholavira, Rakhigarhi, Kalibangan, Ganweriwala, Lakhanjo-daro
Other settlements: Shortugai, Musa Khel, Manda, Rupnagar, Dabarkot, Banawali, Karanpura, Bhirrana, Farmana, Chanhudaro, Balakot, Khirsara, Nagwada, Bagasra, Nageshwar, Lothal
Rivers: River Indus, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Sutlej, Sarasvatī (Ghaggar), Banas, Yamuna, Ganga
Mountain ranges (brown): Hindu Kush, Himalayas, Sulaiman Range, Aravalli Range
The Sarasvatī basin includes: 2 major cities (Rakhigarhi, Ganweriwala); smaller cities (Farmana in Haryana, Kalibangan in Rajasthan); towns (Bhirrana and Banawali, both in Haryana). This shows the civilisation was never just an 'Indus Valley' phenomenon.
City-to-Modern-State Matching Table
The NCERT provides a Let's Explore table (printed with columns scrambled for students to match). The image below shows the NCERT version — the columns are deliberately mixed. The correct answers are in the table below.
| Harappa | Punjab, Pakistan — first excavated 1920-21 |
| Mohenjo-daro | Sindh, Pakistan — first identified 1924 |
| Dholavira | Gujarat, India (Rann of Kutch) — UNESCO World Heritage Site; 3 zones; stone foundations |
| Rakhigarhi | Haryana, India — largest Harappan site in India |
| Kalibangan | Rajasthan, India |
| Ganweriwala | Cholistan desert, Pakistan |
| Lothal | Gujarat, India — famous for dockyard |
| Banawali & Bhirrana | Haryana, India — towns in Sarasvatī basin |
| Farmana | Haryana, India — smaller city in Sarasvatī basin |
| Rupnagar | Punjab, India |
| Manda | Jammu & Kashmir — northernmost Harappan site |
| Shortugai | Afghanistan — northernmost Harappan outpost |
The NCERT's printed matching table shows: Dholavira–Punjab, Harappa–Gujarat, Kalibangan–Sindh, Mohenjo-daro–Haryana, Rakhigarhi–Rajasthan. This is scrambled for students to sort. Do NOT memorise the scrambled version!
The Sarasvatī River — Ghaggar-Hakra
- Flowed from the foothills of the Himalayas through Haryana, Punjab, parts of Rajasthan and Gujarat
- Today goes by 'Ghaggar' in India and 'Hakra' in Pakistan → called the 'Ghaggar-Hakra River'
- Now seasonal — flows only during the rainy season
- First mentioned in the Ṛig Veda (ancient collection of prayers)
- In the Ṛig Veda, Sarasvatī is worshipped both as a goddess and as a river flowing 'from the mountain to the sea'
- Later texts describe the river as drying up and eventually disappearing
- Its drying up in ~2200 BCE contributed to the decline of the Harappan civilisation
Town-Planning — Streets, Zones, Bricks
| Streets | Wide streets often oriented to the cardinal directions (N-S, E-W) |
| City layout | Most cities: two distinct parts — (1) Upper town: elite (rulers, officials, priests) lived here; (2) Lower town: common people lived here |
| Dholavira — unique | Had THREE distinct zones (not two as in other cities). Foundations of most buildings made with stones (not bricks) |
| Fortifications | Most cities surrounded by massive fortification walls |
| Large buildings | Used for collective purposes — e.g., warehouses where goods to be transported were stored |
| Individual houses | Various sizes; quality of construction was the same for small and big houses |
| Building material | All buildings generally made of bricks (except Dholavira's stone foundations) |
The term 'Indus Valley civilisation' is obsolete. A look at the map (Fig. 6.3) explains why — the civilisation extended far beyond the Indus region.
The Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro
| Location | Mohenjo-daro (in the upper town area) |
| Dimensions | About 12 × 7 metres |
| Construction | Waterproofing materials — natural bitumen (a form of tar) applied on top of carefully laid-out bricks |
| Features | Surrounded by small rooms; one room contained a well; a drain in one corner to empty and refill with freshwater |
| Interpretation 1 | Public bath for people — RULED OUT because most houses in Mohenjo-daro had individual bathrooms |
| Interpretation 2 | Bath for the royal family only |
| Interpretation 3 | Tank used for religious rituals — currently most accepted |
| Key note | No inscription, no text, no traveller's account — purely archaeological evidence. Debate continues! |
Have a debate about the last two interpretations (royal bath vs religious ritual). Remember: we have NO other source — no inscription, no text, no traveller's account to help decide.
Water Management — Drains, Wells, Reservoirs
| Home bathing areas | Harappans had separate areas for bathing in homes; connected to larger network of drains |
| Drains | Generally ran below the streets — took waste water away |
| Wells — Mohenjo-daro | People drew water from hundreds of wells made of bricks. About 700 wells counted — regularly maintained for several centuries |
| Other water sources | Ponds, nearby streams, or human-made reservoirs (in other regions) |
| Dholavira largest reservoir | 73 metres in length! |
| Dholavira reservoir count | At least 6 large reservoirs — built with stones or cut into the rock |
| Fig. 6.8 reservoir | 33 metres in length (one of the six large reservoirs) |
| Connectivity | Reservoirs connected through underground drains for efficient water harvesting and distribution |
Imagine the large number of workers required to build such a network of reservoirs. Who organised their work? How were they paid? (Hint: there was no money at that time in the way we have today.) Was there some local authority to manage maintenance? What clues do we get about this city's ruler and municipal administration? Archaeologists also discuss these questions — the answers are not always final!
What Did the Harappans Eat?
| Cereals grown | Barley, wheat, some millets, and sometimes rice |
| Other crops | Pulses (beans, peas, lentils) and a variety of vegetables |
| Cotton | First in Eurasia to grow cotton; used to weave into clothes |
| Farming tools | The plough (Fig. 6.9 — clay model from Banawali, Haryana); some tools still used by modern farmers |
| Animals | Domesticated a number of animals for meat consumption |
| Fishing | Fished both in rivers and the sea — known from large numbers of animal and fish bones found in excavations |
| Clay pot analysis | Scientific examination revealed: dairy products (expected) + turmeric, ginger and banana (surprising!) |
| Conclusion | Their diet was quite diverse! |
| Agricultural management | Managed by hundreds of small rural sites or villages; cities depended on daily supply of agricultural produce |
Imagine you cook a meal in a Harappan house. What dish or dishes would you prepare? Possible meal: wheat roti, barley khichdi, lentil dal, turmeric-ginger vegetable, banana — very similar to a modern Indian meal!
A Brisk Trade — Exports, Carnelian, Sea Routes
| Trade scope | Active trade within own civilisation AND with other civilisations within and outside India |
| Exports | Ornaments, timber, objects of daily use, probably gold and cotton, possibly some food items |
| Most favoured export | Beads of carnelian — a reddish semiprecious stone found mostly in Gujarat |
| Carnelian bead craft | Special techniques to drill them (string could pass through) and to decorate them in various ways |
| Shell bangles | Worked conch shells into shell bangles — required sophisticated techniques (shell is a hard material) |
| Imports | Not clear; probably included copper (not common in Harappan homeland) |
| Trade routes | Land routes, rivers, and sea for more distant destinations |
| Maritime significance | This is the first intensive maritime activity in India |
| Coastal settlements | Quite a few Harappan settlements in coastal regions of Gujarat and Sindh |
| Proof of trade | Carnelian beads found at Susa (present-day Iran); ivory comb found on coast of Oman |
Don't Miss Out — Copper & Bronze Technology
The Harappans mastered the art of working copper, a soft metal.
If tin is added to copper, the resulting metal is bronze, which is harder than copper.
The Harappans used bronze to make: tools, pots and pans, and some figurines (including the famous Dancing Girl).
Lothal Dockyard — First Maritime Activity in India
| Location | Lothal — a small settlement in Gujarat |
| Dimensions | 217 metres in length and 36 metres in width |
| Size comparison | Length is just a little more than two football grounds! |
| Purpose | A dockyard — structure used to receive and send boats for transportation of goods |
| Significance | First intensive maritime activity in India |
Harappan Seals & Writing System
| Material | Steatite (a soft stone hardened through heating) |
| Size | Only a few centimetres |
| What they show | Generally animal figures with, above them, a few signs that are part of a writing system |
| Animals on seals | Unicorn (most common), bull, horned tiger, three-faced deity surrounded by animals, swastika |
| Writing system | The writing system and symbolic meaning of animal figures are yet to be understood / deciphered |
| Purpose | Chief purpose: related to trade activities — helped traders identify their goods and each other |
| Quantity | Thousands of small seals excavated from many settlements |
Looking at the three Harappan seals with writing signs — what goes through your mind? The Harappan script has STILL not been deciphered — it remains one of history's great unsolved mysteries!
Lives of the Ancients — Objects of Daily Use
| Fig. 6.14-1 | Bronze mirror — from Dholavira |
| Fig. 6.14-2 | Terracotta pot (painted, decorated) — from Dholavira |
| Fig. 6.14-3 | Stone weights (various sizes) — from Dholavira |
| Fig. 6.14-4 | Bronze chisel — from Dholavira |
| Fig. 6.14-5 | Gamesboard engraved on stone, about 25 cm in length — from Dholavira |
| Fig. 6.14-6 | Terracotta whistle, about 4 cm in length — from Karanpura in Rajasthan |
Harappans designed many games and toys to keep both adults and children amused! This shows a rich social and leisure culture — they were not just workers and traders.
Cultural & Symbolic Objects — Priest King, Dancing Girl
| Fig. 6.15-1 — 'Priest King' | A statuette of a figure often called 'Priest King' — it is NOT known who this figure was. Wears a decorated garment with trefoil patterns. Has a beard. Do not say it is definitely a priest or king! |
| Fig. 6.15-2 — Swastika Seal | A seal showing a swastika — an ancient auspicious symbol with deep roots in Indian culture, used thousands of years before modern times |
| Fig. 6.15-3 — Three-faced Deity | A seal depicting a three-faced deity seated on a raised platform, surrounded by powerful animals — possibly a proto-Shiva figure (scholars debate this) |
| Fig. 6.15-4 — Dancing Girl | A bronze figurine from Mohenjo-daro; exactly 10.8 cm high; confident pose; bangles covering an entire arm — a practice still visible in Gujarat and Rajasthan today |
| Fig. 6.15-5 — Namaste Figurine | A terracotta figurine seated in a 'namaste' — shows cultural continuity with modern India |
| Fig. 6.15-6 — Lothal Pot Design | A design on a pot from Lothal which seems to tell the story of the thirsty crow who finds a clever way to drink water at the bottom of the pot — this story has been remembered for more than 4,000 years! |
- 'Priest King' statuette: we do NOT know who this figure was
- Dancing Girl: bronze, from Mohenjo-daro, exactly 10.8 cm high
- Lothal pot story = Thirsty crow story — remembered for more than 4,000 years
- Dancing Girl's full-arm bangles = cultural practice still alive in Gujarat and Rajasthan
- Namaste gesture = continuity from Harappan times to present day
Looking at the objects on pages 100 and 101 — can you make out what activities or aspects of life were important for the Harappans? (Trade, water, games, religion, beauty/art, farming, measurement)
1. Complete the story found on the Lothal pot. How was such a story remembered for more than 4,000 years? (Oral tradition, folk stories passed down generations.)
2. Consider the 'Dancing Girl' figurine. Observe her bangles covering an entire arm — still visible in Gujarat and Rajasthan. Where else in this chapter can you spot bangles worn this way? What conclusion should we draw? (Harappan cultural practices survived into modern India — remarkable continuity.)
The End or a New Beginning? — Decline (~1900 BCE)
Around 1900 BCE, the Sindhu-Sarasvatī civilisation began to fall apart.
| When | Around 1900 BCE |
| What happened | Cities abandoned one by one; inhabitants adopted rural lifestyle; government/administration ceased to exist; Harappans scattered over hundreds/thousands of small rural settlements |
| Warfare theory | Earlier thought: warfare or invasions caused the decline — RULED OUT. No trace of warfare or invasion. Harappans do NOT seem to have kept any army or weapons of war. It was a relatively peaceful civilisation |
| Factor 1 (agreed) | A climatic change affecting much of the world from 2200 BCE onward: reduced rainfall and a drier phase. This made agriculture more difficult and reduced food supply to cities |
| Factor 2 (agreed) | The Sarasvatī River dried up in its central basin; cities like Kalibangan and Banawali were suddenly abandoned |
| Legacy | Although cities disappeared, much of Harappan culture and technology survived and was passed on to the next phase of Indian civilisation |
The Harappans returned to rural settlements because a rural lifestyle gives easier access to food and water than an urban lifestyle. Then as now, cities depended on villages to provide food, and sometimes water. This reminds us of how much we depend on climate and the environment for our well-being.
Before We Move On — Chapter Summary
- The Indus, Harappan or Sindhu-Sarasvatī civilisation is one of the oldest of the world. Its inhabitants, the Harappans, created planned cities with efficient water management, diverse crafts and a brisk trade.
- A productive agriculture brought a variety of crops to the cities.
- The civilisation eventually declined, probably because of climatic and environmental changes; people returned to a rural lifestyle.
All 8 NCERT Exercise Answers
| Q1. Why several names? | 'Harappan' = after Harappa (first excavated 1920-21); 'Indus' = after Indus River; 'Indus-Sarasvatī' / 'Sindhu-Sarasvatī' = to include the Sarasvatī River basin. Each name reflects a different aspect of the civilisation's geography. |
| Q2. Achievements report | Planned cities with grid streets; two/three zone layout; fortification walls; sophisticated underground drainage; hundreds of wells (700 at Mohenjo-daro); 6 reservoirs at Dholavira (largest 73m); Great Bath; first in Eurasia to grow cotton; diverse diet; trade across continents; first intensive maritime activity; dockyard at Lothal (217×36m); bronze metallurgy; carnelian bead craftsmanship; undeciphered seals; art (Dancing Girl, Priest King, namaste figurine). |
| Q3. Travel from Harappa to Kalibangan | Options: (1) River route along Sutlej/Sarasvatī (Ghaggar); (2) Land route by bullock cart; (3) Overland by foot (~500-600 km). No modern roads — ancient travel would take weeks. |
| Q4. Harappan in today's kitchen | (1) Gas/electric stove — no open fire needed; (2) Refrigerator — no spoilage; (3) Running water from tap; (4) Processed/packaged food; (5) Microwave / mixer; (6) Stainless steel utensils |
| Q5. Familiar objects/gestures | Namaste gesture; bangles covering full arm; swastika symbol; stone weights (used in trade like today's weighing); terracotta toys; painted pottery; comb; bead ornaments |
| Q6. Mindset of Dholavira reservoirs | Extraordinary civic planning; long-term water security thinking; collective responsibility; strong local administration; conservation mindset; engineering excellence |
| Q7. 700 wells at Mohenjo-daro | Implies: large urban population; strong municipal maintenance system; standardised brick-making technology; civic responsibility; wells maintained for centuries = very stable administration; water was a public good — not privatised |
| Q8. Harappans had 'high civic sense' | Evidence: uniform drainage below streets, individual bathrooms, 700 wells maintained centuries, standardised bricks, planned streets oriented to cardinal directions, no weapons of war found. All suggest a society prioritising collective well-being. Contrast with modern India: many cities still lack basic drainage despite far greater resources and technology. |
Practice MCQs
The Beginnings of Indian Civilisation · 50 Questions · UPSC & State PCS Level
