India's Cultural Roots
Big Questions & Opening Context
- What are the Vedas? What is their message?
- What new schools of thought emerged in India in the 1st millennium BCE? What are their core principles?
- What is the contribution of folk and tribal traditions to Indian culture?
"That which cannot be stolen; that which cannot be confiscated by rulers; … that which is not a burden as it does not weigh anything; that which, though it is used, only grows every day — that is the greatest wealth of all, the wealth of true knowledge."
This ancient Sanskrit wise saying (Subhāṣhita) sets the tone for the entire chapter: the primacy of knowledge as the greatest wealth in Indian civilisation — a recurring theme across Vedas, Upanishads, Buddhism, and Jainism.
The chapter opens with three images: A rishi from Hampi (Karnataka), The Buddha from Bhutan, and Mahāvīra from Bihar — symbolising the three great traditions discussed.
The Tree Metaphor — Understanding Indian Culture
The NCERT uses the metaphor of an ancient banyan tree to describe Indian culture:
The NCERT explicitly states at the chapter's end: "The banyan tree is an apt illustration for the themes in Chapters 7 and 8, and a fine symbol for Indian civilisation. With its deep root system, massive trunk and branches spreading in all directions, it can extend to a vast area and last for many centuries. It shelters a variety of flora and fauna and encourages its branches, though united at the trunk, to throw fresh roots of their own. Indeed, Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism regard the banyan tree as sacred."
Schools of thought = groups of thinkers or spiritual seekers who share similar ideas about human life, the world, etc.
Many archaeologists and scholars have pointed out that some of India's cultural roots go all the way to the Indus or Harappan or Sindhu-Sarasvatī civilisation (Chapter 6). Later, hundreds of schools of thought emerged in India.
All Sidebar Key Terms — Exam Critical
The NCERT includes these sidebar definitions — all frequently tested in UPSC and State PCS prelims.
| Spiritual | Concerned with the spirit or soul (ātman in Sanskrit and many Indian languages). Spirituality is the search for a deeper or higher dimension beyond our current personality. |
| Seeker | Someone who seeks the truths of this world. This could be a sage, a saint, a yogi, a philosopher, etc. |
| UNESCO | Stands for 'United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization'. It promotes dialogue between people and nations through education, science and culture. |
| Cosmos | The world or the universe as an ordered and harmonious system. |
| Worldview | A certain view or understanding of the world, its origin, or its workings. |
| Healer | Someone who uses traditional practices to relieve or heal diseases. |
| Consciousness | The quality or state of being aware, for instance of something within oneself. |
| Ascetic | Someone who engages in a rigorous discipline to attain a higher consciousness. |
| Attachment | The condition of having a bond with someone or something, usually through sentiment or habit. |
| Monk | A man who, giving up the usual life in the world, dedicates himself to religious or spiritual pursuits. A monk usually takes vows — commits himself to follow strict rules for a disciplined life. |
| Nun | The female equivalent of a monk. |
The Vedas — Meaning, Composition & UNESCO Recognition
The word "Veda" comes from the Sanskrit root vid, which means 'knowledge' (hence vidyā = learning/education).
| Ṛig Veda | The most ancient of the four Vedas. Dates proposed by experts range from the 5th to the 2nd millennium BCE. Contains hymns to many deities. Its last mantras call for unity among people. |
| Yajur Veda | Deals with ritual formulas and liturgical procedures for sacrifices (yajñas). |
| Sāma Veda | Associated with melodies (sāman) used in rituals. Known as the Veda of chants. |
| Atharva Veda | Contains hymns, spells, and philosophical speculations. |
| Nature | Most ancient texts of India and among the most ancient in the world. Consist of thousands of hymns — prayers in the form of poems and songs. |
| Transmission | Oral, not written. Recited orally with hardly any alterations for 100–200 generations. They were committed to memory through rigorous training. |
| Composition Region | Composed in the Sapta Sindhava region (the land of the seven rivers — Chapter 5). |
| Language | Composed in an early form of the Sanskrit language. |
| Composers | Rishis (male seers/sages) and Rishikas (female seers/sages). |
| Addressed To | Many deities in poetical form: Indra, Agni, Varuṇa, Mitra, Sarasvatī, Uṣhas, and many more. |
| Core Purpose | Together with the seers, the deities sustained ṛitam — truth and order in human life and in the cosmos. |
| Dating of Ṛig Veda | Experts propose dates ranging from the 5th to the 2nd millennium BCE. |
This meticulous transmission over thousands of years explains why, in 2008, UNESCO recognised Vedic chanting as a 'masterpiece of the oral and intangible heritage of humanity'.
Remember: Year = 2008 | UNESCO | Vedic Chanting | "oral and intangible heritage of humanity"
In this Vedic worldview, some values were especially important, beginning with 'Truth', which was often another name for God.
Vedic Society — Janas, Professions & Governance
| Social Organisation | Organised in different janas or 'clans' — larger groups of people. |
| Number of Janas | The Ṛig Veda alone lists over 30 janas. |
| Examples of Janas | The Bharatas, the Purus, the Kurus, the Yadus, the Turvaśhas, etc. Each clan was associated with a particular region of the northwest part of the Subcontinent. |
| Governance Clues | Words from Vedas: rājā (a king or ruler), sabhā and samiti — both refer to a collective gathering or assembly. |
| Note | Not much is known of how these janas governed their society — the Vedas only give a few clues. |
Agriculturist, weaver, potter, builder, carpenter, healer, dancer, barber, priest — showing a diverse, multi-occupational society.
Democracy question: "Do you know the term for a society where people select their leaders?" — This refers to Democracy. The Vedic concepts of sabhā and samiti (assemblies) are seen as early precursors to democratic institutions in India.
Vedic Schools of Thought — Upanishads, Vedanta & Yoga
Vedic culture also developed many rituals (yajña, often read as 'yagya') directed towards various deities for individual or collective benefit and wellbeing. Daily rituals were generally in the form of prayers and offerings to Agni, the deity associated with fire — but those rituals became more and more complex in the course of time.
A group of texts known as 'Upanishads' built upon Vedic concepts and introduced new ones:
- Rebirth — taking birth again and again
- Karma — our actions or their results
| Vedanta | A school of thought that grew out of the Vedas. Holds that everything — human life, nature and the universe — is one divine essence called brahman (not to be confused with the god Brahmā) or sometimes just tat ('that'). |
| Ātman | The divine essence that resides in every being but is ultimately one with brahman. It follows that everything in this world is connected and interdependent. |
| Famous Prayer | sarve bhavantu sukhinah = "May all creatures be happy" — and free from disease and sorrow. This flows from the Upanishadic concept that all beings are connected. |
| Yoga | Another school that grew out of the Vedas early in the 1st millennium BCE. Developed methods intended to achieve the realisation of brahman in one's consciousness. |
| Result | Together, Vedanta, Yoga and related schools became the foundations for what we call 'Hinduism' today. |
The Upanishads were composed roughly from 1000 BCE to 500 BCE (and somewhat beyond). Vedic schools of thought continued from around 500 BCE to 500 CE. The births of Buddha and Mahāvīra are marked at approximately 500 BCE on the NCERT timeline.
Key Upanishadic Stories — Exam Hot Spots
Many stories from the Upanishads tell us the importance of asking questions, whether these questions come from men, women or children.
Rishi Uddālaka Āruṇi sent his son Śhvetaketu to a gurukula to learn the Vedas. When Śhvetaketu returned 12 years later, his father realised he had become very proud of his learning. So Uddālaka tested him with questions on the nature of brahman, which Śhvetaketu could not answer.
Uddālaka explained how brahman, though invisible, is everywhere — just as the seed of a banyan fruit seems empty when you open it, but already contains the future banyan tree; or just as all kinds of different pots can be made out of the same clay. Similarly, everything around us has emerged from the same essence — brahman.
He concluded his teaching: "Everything consists of this subtle essence. … You are That, Śhvetaketu."
Once, a man was giving away all his possessions in a ritual. As his son Nachiketa kept asking him which god he would be offered to, the father became angry and answered, "I give you to Yama" — that is, to the god of death.
Nachiketa proceeded to Yama's world and, after a long wait, met the mighty god. His question: "What happens after the death of the body?" Yama tried to avoid answering, but the boy persisted. Pleased, Yama explained that the ātman, or self, is hidden within all creatures. It is neither born, nor does it die; it is immortal. Having acquired this profound knowledge, Nachiketa returned to his father, who welcomed him joyfully.
Once, the wise king Janaka announced a prize for the winner of a philosophical debate. Yājñavalkya, a renowned rishi, came to the king's court and defeated many scholars until Gārgī, a rishika (female seer), asked him a series of questions on the nature of the world, and finally on the nature of brahman. At that point, Yājñavalkya asked her to stop asking further questions. Later, however, Gārgī resumed her questions and Yājñavalkya went on to explain how brahman is what makes the world, the seasons, the rivers and everything else possible.
Significance: This story shows that women (Gārgī, a rishika) were active participants in the highest philosophical debates in ancient India — a fact of great importance for UPSC.
Have you heard or read any other story that conveyed an important message? What values did it teach you?
Buddhism — Life of the Buddha & Core Teachings
Other schools of thought also emerged, which did not accept the authority of the Vedas and developed their own systems. One of them is Buddhism.
| Birth Name | Siddhārtha Gautama |
| Birthplace | Lumbini (today in Nepal) |
| Approx. Birth Year | About two-and-a-half millenniums ago. NCERT Chapter 4 uses 560 BCE as an approximate year, but notes scholars have widely different conclusions. |
| Background | Born into a royal family; grew up living a protected life in the palace. |
| The Four Sights (Age 29) | At age 29, driven through the city in a chariot, he saw: (1) an old man, (2) a sick man, (3) a dead body, and (4) an ascetic who appeared happy and at peace. |
| Renunciation | Following this experience, Siddhārtha decided to give up his palace life, leaving behind his wife and son. Travelled on foot as an ascetic, meeting other ascetics and scholars, searching for the root cause of suffering. |
| Enlightenment | After meditating for many days under a pipal tree at Bodh Gaya (today in Bihar), he attained enlightenment. He realised that avidyā (ignorance) and attachment are the source of human suffering, and conceived a method to remove these two causes. |
| Title Acquired | Became known as the 'Buddha' — meaning the 'enlightened' or 'awakened' one. |
| Ahimsa | Generally translated as 'nonviolence', but originally means 'non-hurting' or 'non-injuring'. |
| Avidyā | Ignorance — identified as a root cause of human suffering. |
| Attachment | The other root cause of human suffering; having a bond with someone or something through sentiment or habit. |
| On Inner Discipline | "Conquering oneself is greater than conquering a thousand men on the battlefield a thousand times." |
| On Purity | "Not by water is one made pure, though many people may bathe here [in sacred rivers]. But one is pure in whom truth and dharma reside." |
| The Sangha | Founded the Sangha — a community of bhikṣhus (monks) and later bhikṣhuṇīs (nuns) who dedicated themselves to practising and spreading his teachings. |
| Influence | His influence on India, and the whole of Asia, was enormous and is still perceptible today. |
States/countries where Buddhism is a major religion today: India (Bihar, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Ladakh), Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, China, Japan, South Korea, Bhutan, Mongolia, Tibet.
Jainism — Mahāvīra, Core Teachings & Key Terms
Jainism is another important school of thought that became widespread at the same time, although its roots are said to be much more ancient.
| Birth Name | Prince Vardhamāna |
| Birthplace | Near the city of Vaiśhālī, in modern-day Bihar |
| Period | Born into a royal family in the early 6th century BCE |
| Renunciation | At the age of 30, decided to leave his home and go in search of spiritual knowledge. |
| Achievement | Practised an ascetic discipline and, after 12 years, achieved 'infinite knowledge' or supreme wisdom. |
| Title Acquired | Became known as 'Mahāvīra' — meaning 'great hero'. Started preaching what he had realised. |
The word 'Jain' or jaina comes from jina, meaning 'conqueror'. This does not refer to the conquest of territory or enemies, but to the conquest of ignorance and attachments, so as to reach enlightenment.
| 1. Ahimsa | 'Non-hurting' or 'non-injuring'. Mahāvīra's saying: "All breathing, existing, living, sentient creatures should not be slain, nor treated with violence, nor abused, nor tormented, nor driven away." In Jainism, ahimsa also means refraining from violence in thought, such as having ill feelings towards anyone. |
| 2. Anekāntavāda | Means 'not just one' aspect or perspective. The truth has many aspects and cannot be fully described by any single statement. This principle of many-sidedness / non-absolutism is unique to Jainism. |
| 3. Aparigraha | Means 'non-possession'. Advises detachment from material possessions, limiting oneself to what is truly necessary in life. |
Jainism also insists on the interconnectedness and interdependence of all creatures, from humans to invisible organisms, as they support each other and cannot live without one another. Scientists studying nature, flora and fauna, have again and again confirmed this deep truth.
In both Buddhism and Jainism, ahimsa means much more than refraining from physical violence. It also means refraining from violence in thought, such as having ill feelings towards anyone. Sometimes such negative thoughts are even directed at ourselves!
Jātaka Tales & Jain Stories
The Jātaka tales, which have delighted generations of Indian children and adults, tell stories of the Buddha's former births and express in simple terms the Buddhist values.
The Buddha was the king of a large troop of monkeys. They lived near a huge tree which bore fruit of divine fragrance and taste. Despite the monkey-king's instructions that no fruit should escape, one day a ripe fruit fell into the stream below. Carried by the current, it was caught in a net and taken to the palace. The king was so enchanted by its taste that he ordered his soldiers to locate the tree. After a long search, they found the tree — and the monkeys enjoying its fruits. The soldiers attacked the monkeys.
The only way for the monkey-king to save his monkeys was to help them cross the stream. Being much larger than them, the monkey-king caught hold of a tree on the other bank and let them use his body as a bridge to cross the stream, although he was severely bruised in the process and eventually died. The king, who watched from a distance, was greatly moved by the monkey-king's selfless sacrifice. He thought about the role of a king with respect to his subjects.
Rohineya was an extraordinarily skilled burglar who evaded all attempts to catch him. On his way to a city, he accidentally heard a few sentences from a sermon that Mahāvīra was giving about achieving liberation from the ordinary life of ignorance. Reaching the city, Rohineya was recognised and arrested. He pretended to be a simple farmer. A minister devised a clever plan to force him to confess his identity. But Rohineya, remembering Mahāvīra's words, was able to detect the minister's plan and defeat it.
Feeling remorseful, Rohineya approached Mahāvīra, confessed his crimes, returned the stolen treasures, and asked for forgiveness. He became a monk, realised the illusion he was living in and focused on acquiring higher knowledge.
Rock-Cut Caves, Monks & Nuns — Spread of Buddhism & Jainism
In both Buddhism and Jainism, monks, and sometimes nuns too, began travelling across the land to spread their respective teachings far and wide. Some created new monasteries in faraway places, while others led ascetic lives in caves cut in the rock.
Archaeological findings have revealed many traces of those monasteries, sometimes even the names of the monks who lived in the rock-cut caves and slept on the stone beds!
Ellora Caves (Maharashtra): Caves cut into the rock at Ellora between the 6th and the 10th centuries CE. Some of the caves are Hindu, others are Buddhist and Jain. This remarkable co-existence of three traditions at one site demonstrates India's pluralistic heritage. Ellora is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
In English, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism are often labelled 'religions'. The NCERT deliberately avoids this term, preferring 'schools of thought' and (later in this chapter) 'belief systems'. This is because there are many aspects to those schools and systems — a philosophical aspect, a spiritual aspect, a religious aspect, an ethical aspect, a social aspect, to name a few. Many scholars agree that the word 'religion' is too limiting in the context of the Indian civilisation.
Chārvāka / Lokāyata School — The Materialist School
| Other Name | Lokāyata |
| Core Belief | Believed that this material world is the only thing that exists, and therefore there can be no life after death. It rejected concepts like karma, rebirth, and the soul. |
| Popularity | This school does not seem to have gained much popularity and it disappeared with time. |
| Significance | Mentioned by the NCERT to show that there was a wide diversity of intellectual or spiritual belief systems; people were free to choose what suited them. This reflects India's pluralistic intellectual tradition. |
Shared Concepts Across Schools — The Common Trunk
Although the Vedic, Buddhist and Jain schools had important differences, they also shared some common concepts. This is the 'trunk' of the tree of Indian culture.
| Dharma | Righteous conduct, moral order, duty — a central concept in all three traditions. |
| Karma | Our actions or their results; the law of cause and effect governing rebirth and suffering. |
| Rebirth | The belief in taking birth again and again (samsara) until liberation is attained. |
| Liberation | The search for an end to suffering and ignorance — the ultimate goal of all three traditions. |
| Ahimsa | Non-violence / non-hurting — a value shared across Vedic, Buddhist and Jain traditions. |
| Interdependence | The interconnectedness of all beings — seen in Vedantic ātman concept, Jain ecology, and Buddhist compassion. |
Folk & Tribal Roots — Oral Traditions
India has had rich 'oral traditions' — teachings or practices transmitted through everyday practice, without written texts (this is also the case of the Vedas). Among them are numerous:
- Folk traditions — transmitted by common people
- Tribal traditions — transmitted by tribes
The cultural roots seen so far (Vedic, Buddhist, Jain) are well documented in texts. Folk and tribal traditions are often undocumented but equally important.
What is a Tribe? — Exam-Critical Definition Box
| Anthropological Definition | A group of families or clans sharing a tradition of common descent, a culture and a language, living as a close-knit community under a chief and holding no private property. |
| Ancient India's View | Ancient India did not have a word for 'tribe' — tribes were just different janas that lived in a specific environment, such as forests or mountains. |
| Constitutional Terms | The Constitution of India uses 'tribes' and 'tribal communities' in English, and janjāti in Hindi. |
| Numbers (2011 Census) | In 2011, India had 705 tribes spread over most States, amounting to a population of about 104 million people — more than the populations of Australia and the United Kingdom together! |
| Historical Bias | In the 19th century, anthropologists often described tribes as 'primitive' or 'inferior' to civilised people. With deeper studies of tribal communities and their rich and complex cultures, such biased judgments have been mostly abandoned. |
Tribal Deities & Interaction with Hinduism
There has been a constant interaction between folk and tribal traditions, and the leading schools of thought. Deities, concepts, legends and rituals have been freely exchanged in both directions.
| Jagannath (Puri, Odisha) | According to tradition, Jagannath, worshipped at Puri (Odisha), was originally a tribal deity — later absorbed into Hinduism. |
| Mother Goddess | Various forms of the mother-goddess worshipped across India also trace tribal origins. |
| Tribes Adopting Hindu Elements | Some tribes adopted Hindu deities long ago and possess their own versions of the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa — documented from India's northeastern States all the way to Tamil Nadu. |
| Why Smooth Interaction? | Because folk, tribal and Hindu belief systems have many similar concepts. In all three, elements of nature — mountains, rivers, trees, plants, animals, and some stones too — are regarded as sacred, because there is consciousness behind all of them. |
| Toda Tribals (Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu) | Over thirty peaks of the Nilgiri mountain range are residences of a god or goddess. Those peaks are so sacred that the Todas avoid pointing to them with a finger. |
| Tribes of Arunachal Pradesh | Several tribes worship Donyipolo — a combined form of the Sun and the Moon who later rose to the higher status of a supreme god. |
| Khandoba (Central India) | The god Khandoba in parts of central India — another example of a tribal deity that rose to higher status. |
| Munda and Santhal (Eastern India) | Worship Singbonga — a supreme deity who created this whole world. |
Despite this multiplicity of deities, as with Hinduism, many tribal groups have a concept of a higher divinity or supreme being — showing a sophisticated theological worldview.
André Béteille's Quote — Mains Relevant
"The thousands of castes and tribes on the Indian subcontinent have influenced each other in their religious beliefs and practices since the beginning of history and before. That the tribal religions have been influenced by Hinduism is widely accepted, but it is equally true that Hinduism, not only in its formative phase but throughout its evolution, has been influenced by tribal religions."
Key Point: The result of this long interaction has been mutual enrichment. This is a two-way process, not one-way. Folk and tribal beliefs and practices also count among India's cultural roots.
Before We Move On — Chapter Summary
- The Vedas, India's earliest texts, gave rise to several schools of thought. Vedanta and Yoga are among the best known.
- Buddhism and Jainism departed from the authority of the Vedas and laid emphasis on some specific values and practices.
- Although these schools had different principles and methods, they also shared some important concepts; they were all looking for the cause of suffering and the means of removing ignorance.
- Tribal belief systems and art have interacted for millenniums with Hinduism. There was free borrowing and giving from every side. Tribal belief systems generally regard the land and its features as sacred; they often have, at the same time, a higher concept of divinity.
| Founded By / Source | Vedic: Rishis and Rishikas | Buddhist: Siddhārtha Gautama (Buddha) | Jain: Ancient; revived/preached by Mahāvīra (Vardhamāna) |
| Attitude to Vedas | Vedic/Vedanta/Yoga: Accept Vedic authority | Buddhism & Jainism: Do NOT accept the authority of the Vedas |
| Birthplace of Founder | Buddha: Lumbini (Nepal) | Mahāvīra: Near Vaiśhālī (Bihar) |
| Place of Enlightenment | Buddha: Bodh Gaya, Bihar (under a pipal tree) | Mahāvīra: After 12 years of ascetic discipline |
| Age at Renunciation | Buddha: 29 | Mahāvīra: 30 |
| Years to Enlightenment | Mahāvīra: 12 years of ascetic discipline |
| Meaning of Title | Buddha = 'Enlightened/Awakened one' | Mahāvīra = 'Great hero' | Jain/Jaina from Jina = 'Conqueror' (of ignorance) |
| Community Founded | Buddha: The Sangha (bhikṣhus/monks and bhikṣhuṇīs/nuns) |
| Shared Values | Ahimsa, dharma, karma, rebirth, interconnectedness of beings, end to suffering and ignorance |
| Unique to Jainism | Anekāntavāda (many-sidedness of truth), Aparigraha (non-possession) |
| Modern Legacy | Vedic schools → Hinduism, Yoga | Buddhism: major religion across Asia | Jainism: significant community in India |
NCERT Exercise Q&A & True/False Answers
| 1. The Vedic hymns were written on palm-leaf manuscripts. | FALSE. The Vedic hymns were recited orally, not written. Committed to memory through rigorous training and passed on orally with hardly any alterations. |
| 2. The Vedas are India's oldest texts. | TRUE. They are the most ancient texts of India and among the most ancient in the world. |
| 3. The Vedic statement ekam sat viprā bahudhā vadanti reflects a belief in the unity of cosmic powers. | TRUE. It means "The Existent (supreme reality) is one, but sages give it many names" — affirming unity behind diversity. |
| 4. Buddhism is older than the Vedas. | FALSE. The Vedas date to the 2nd–5th millennium BCE. The Buddha lived approximately 2,500 years ago. |
| 5. Jainism emerged as a branch of Buddhism. | FALSE. Jainism is a separate and independent school of thought with roots said to be much more ancient. Both emerged around the same period but are distinct traditions. |
| 6. Both Buddhism and Jainism advocated for peaceful coexistence and the avoidance of harm to all living beings. | TRUE. Both share the principle of ahimsa (non-hurting/non-violence). |
| 7. Tribal belief systems are limited to belief in spirits and minor deities. | FALSE. Many tribal groups have a concept of a higher divinity or supreme being (e.g., Donyipolo, Singbonga). Tribal cultures are rich and complex. |
| Q2: Central ideas of Buddhism | (1) Avidyā (ignorance) and attachment are root causes of suffering. (2) Ahimsa — non-hurting. (3) Inner discipline is more important than external rituals. (4) Conquering the self is greater than any external conquest. (5) The Sangha — community for practice. |
| Q4: Central ideas of Jainism | (1) Ahimsa — all living creatures must not be harmed. (2) Anekāntavāda — truth has many aspects. (3) Aparigraha — non-possession. (4) All creatures are interconnected. (5) Everyone deserves a second chance (Rohineya story). |
| Q5: André Béteille's thought | Tribal religions and Hinduism have mutually influenced each other throughout history. The result has been mutual enrichment — a two-way process, not one-directional. |
MCQ Practice Set — Chapter 7: India's Cultural Roots
60 Questions covering all facts, sidebar terms, stories, and comparative concepts | UPSC & State PCS Level
