From the Rulers to the Ruled
Chapter 9 — Governance and Democracy · Types of Governments
NCERT Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7, Part 1
What is Government? What are its Functions?
Government plays a central role in the lives of citizens. Its key responsibilities include:
- Maintaining law and order in society
- Ensuring peace, stability, and security for the people
- Managing relationships with other countries (foreign policy)
- Taking care of national defence
- Delivering essential goods and services — education, healthcare, infrastructure
- Managing the economy and economic activities
- Working for the welfare and improving people's lives
India has a democratic form of government. Like India, many countries have democratic governments; some countries have other forms. Even democratic governments are not exactly the same — they vary in structure and functioning.
What is Democracy?
Democracy is best understood as the 'rule of the people'. The source of power and authority in a democracy are the people of the country.
Abraham Lincoln, U.S. president in the late 19th century, described democracy as 'government of the people, by the people, for the people' — a phrase still widely used today.
The NCERT textbook uses a school student committee scenario to illustrate democratic principles. Three options were considered for forming the committee:
| Method | How | Outcome / Problem |
|---|---|---|
| Method 1 | Everyone in school becomes part of the committee | Difficult to reach decisions; impractical at scale — like direct democracy's limitation |
| Method 2 | Head Teacher appoints students for the committee | Students have no voice; not representative — like non-democratic selection |
| Method 3 ✔ | Students elect one representative per grade through voting | Democratic, inclusive, and effective — the preferred model |
Representative: A person chosen to act or make decisions on behalf of another person or group of people.
The school example illustrates the concept of representation. However, class representatives in a school are quite different from Members of Parliament (MPs) and Members of the Legislative Assembly (MLAs). What are these differences?
Three Functions of Government
| Function | What It Means | Body Responsible (India) |
|---|---|---|
| Legislative | Creation of rules/laws — the framework for running the country | Parliament (Lok Sabha + Rajya Sabha) |
| Executive | Implementation of rules and administration of the country | President, PM, Council of Ministers, Bureaucracy |
| Judicial | Ensuring rules are followed by citizens and the government | Supreme Court, High Courts, Lower Courts |
What Makes Governments Different?
Governments of different countries differ based on four key questions. A country's government evolves shaped by its history, culture, and aspirations.
| Key Question | Democracy | Monarchy | Theocracy |
|---|---|---|---|
| Who decides "this is the government"? | The people | Hereditary succession (family) | Religious beliefs & religious head |
| How is the government formed? | Elections | Hereditary — eldest son usually succeeds | Clerics / religious authority appoints |
| What are the parts & what do they do? | Written constitution; Legislature, Executive, Judiciary separate | King/Queen decides; often no separation | Religious law is supreme |
| What is the government working for? | Equality & prosperity for all citizens | Welfare of ruling family / state | Establishing a society based on religious norms |
Constitution: A book of fundamental rules of a country that decides how the government will work. Most democracies have a written constitution.
Fundamental Principles of Democracy
These principles are common to all democracies, though their implementation varies:
⚖️ Equality
Every person has the right to be treated equally — equal access to education, health, and equality before the law.
✊ Freedom
Citizens have the right to make their own choices and express their opinions freely.
🗳️ Representative Participation
Every person has the right to choose and elect their representatives through elections. Elected representatives form the legislature.
🎫 Universal Adult Franchise
Every citizen above a certain age has the right to vote to choose their representative.
📜 Fundamental Rights
Right to equality, right to freedom of speech and expression, right against exploitation — all provided and protected in a democracy.
⚖️ Independent Judiciary
Ensures citizens' fundamental rights are protected and laws are followed by citizens and all parts of the government.
- India granted universal adult franchise from the very beginning of the Indian republic — 1950
- In Switzerland, women received the right to vote only in 1971
- Effective Universal Adult Suffrage in the UK — 1928; in the USA — 1965
- These principles are ideals — not all democracies fully achieve them in practice
Different Forms of Democratic Government
All citizens are directly responsible for all rules, regulations, and functions — they participate in all decisions directly.
- Contemporary partial example: Switzerland
- Limitation: Very hard to carry out in practice in large countries
The most prevalent form — people elect representatives through universal adult franchise. People do not directly govern, but the government is always accountable to the people.
Accountability in Democracy: The government is answerable to the people who have elected them.
Elections occur at regular fixed intervals — India: general elections every 5 years; USA: every 4 years.
| Country | Year Democracy Established |
|---|---|
| USA | 1787 |
| Switzerland | 1848 |
| India | 1947 |
| Germany | 1949 |
| Kenya | 1964 |
| Nepal | 2008 |
- Members of the executive are also part of the legislature
- In India: the Prime Minister and Council of Ministers are also members of Parliament
- Council of Ministers is accountable to the legislature — they continue in office as long as they have the confidence of the Lok Sabha
- People elect the legislature; selected members of the legislature become ministers
- Examples: India, Australia, UK
- The executive works independently of the legislature
- The president is elected directly by the people
- The president does not need the legislature's confidence to remain in power
- Examples: USA, South Korea
Legislature: The body responsible for making laws. Called Parliament in India; Congress in USA; National Assembly in South Korea. In most democracies, it has two houses — Upper House and Lower House.
Separation of Power: The three organs — Legislature, Executive, and Judiciary — work independently and do not interfere in each other's functions.
Lower House vs Upper House: In most countries, the Lower House is elected by direct voting and is generally more powerful. In India: Lok Sabha (Lower), Rajya Sabha (Upper).
★ Key Observations from Table 9.1
- India & Australia → Parliamentary democracy (PM + Council of Ministers as executive)
- USA & South Korea → Presidential democracy (President as executive)
- South Korea → Only country with a single-house legislature (National Assembly)
- USA & Australia → Equal power between two houses; India → Lok Sabha more powerful
- Judiciary is independent in ALL four democracies shown (separation of power)
A Peek into History — Early Republics
Republic: A form of government in which the head of state is elected and is not a hereditary monarch.
- The Vajji (Vṛiji) mahājanapada, particularly the Lichchhavi clan, practised collective decision-making
- Leaders were chosen based on merit rather than birth
- Key positions were filled through elections
- Representatives from various clans met regularly to address issues — hence called early republics
- Location: Vaikuntha Perumal temple, Uttaramerur, Tamil Nadu
- Period: 10th century CE (Chola period)
- Significance: Provide details about election of members to the village sabhā (local administrative body)
- Evidence of sealed ballot boxes used in elections — ancient democratic practice
- Describes qualifications of members, their duties, and conditions for dismissal
- Members were immediately removed if found guilty of corruption
- Shows: voice of common people was valued even under a king's rule
Bhīṣhma (wise elder of the Kuru dynasty), lying on a bed of arrows, teaches Yudhiṣṭhira about good governance:
- A raja's highest priority is the welfare of his people
- He must apply the law without bias — to ensure fairness and equality
- He must not get attached to power — it fosters ego and corruption
- He must seek guidance from wise advisors for just, well-informed decisions
- His authority is temporary and bound by dharma
- 5th and 4th centuries BCE: Rome and Greece had republics
- In some Greek regions: free men could vote, but women, workers, and slaves could not
- Other areas: only a small privileged group could vote — closer to oligarchy
Other Forms of Government
Ruled by a monarch (king or queen) who exercises sovereign power. Usually hereditary — the eldest son typically succeeds.
- Mahājanapadas were headed by kings, guided by the sabhā or samiti
- Kings were expected to take advice seriously — power was neither absolute nor beyond question in many parts of India
- Kings relied on a council of ministers, officials, and learned scholars on matters of dharma
- Kings were expected to rule within the limits of rājadharma
- Some kings, however, used their power to subjugate their people
- In some parts of the world, kings had all power — made laws, enforced them, decided punishments, and sometimes claimed divine power from God
Sovereign: The source of power of a country is independent from external influence.
Monarchs: Kings or queens who inherit their position from their family, usually passing it within the royal family.
Rājadharma: Ruling according to dharma and ensuring the welfare of all people — the ideal expected of Indian kings (not always achieved).
Subjugate: To take control of people or a place by using force and make the people obey.
Adjudicating: Judging a case when there is a dispute.
The monarch has complete control — makes laws, ensures they are followed, and adjudicates disputes.
- Example: Saudi Arabia — king holds all power, governs according to Islamic law
- Appoints a council that advises him but is NOT bound by its advice
The monarch is head of state but has only nominal power. Real power lies with elected representatives.
- Example: United Kingdom (Britain) — the king/queen is ceremonial head of state
- Real executive power lies with the Prime Minister
- Real legislative power lies with the elected Parliament
- Britain is effectively a parliamentary democracy with a constitutional monarchy
The country is ruled by the rules of religion and religious leaders.
- Full name: Islamic Republic of Iran
- Unique hybrid combining theocratic and democratic governance
- Constitution based on fundamental principles of Islam
- Supreme Leader: Selected by a group of Islamic clerics; has ultimate authority over legislature, executive, and judiciary; term is for life
- Also has an elected president and parliament for everyday governance
- Intent: to establish a society based on Islamic norms
Other current theocracies: Afghanistan and Vatican City.
One person or a small group possesses absolute power — not limited by any constitution or law.
- Adolf Hitler (Germany): Appointed Chancellor in 1933; passed laws giving him full power. Killed at least 6 million Jews (the Holocaust) and hundreds of thousands of Roma. Directly caused World War II (1939–1945).
- Idi Amin (Uganda): Military dictator; responsible for merciless killing of thousands. Many Indians whose ancestors had migrated to Uganda were forced to flee the country.
- North Korea: Compulsory military service until the government decides; rules for hairstyle and clothing; no access to global internet; surveillance of every action; citizens must report rule-breakers.
The Roma (Romani) people were originally nomads. Based on linguistic and cultural characteristics, scholars have determined they originated in India. They first settled in eastern Europe and have since migrated to several countries of the world. (This Indian connection is frequently tested in exams.)
Caricature: A drawing that makes someone look funny or foolish because some part of the person's appearance is exaggerated.
From Greek: olígos (few) + árkhō (to rule). A small, powerful group makes all important decisions — usually wealthy families or influential people.
- Ancient example: aristocratic families in ancient Greece
- Modern observation: even some democracies show signs of oligarchy when politicians and wealthy businesspeople hold excessive influence in governance
Political commentators: People who analyse and share their opinions about political events.
Why Democracy Matters
In a genuine democracy, people can lead their everyday lives in the way they want — choosing what to speak, wear, believe, and how to express themselves. All this is permitted as long as it does not harm someone else's rights.
| Characteristic | Democracy | Dictatorship | Absolute Monarchy | Oligarchy |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Universal Adult Franchise | ✔ Yes | ✘ No | ✘ No | ✘ No |
| Equality amongst citizens | ✔ Yes | ✘ No | ✘ No | ✘ No |
| Freedom of speech | ✔ Yes | ✘ No | ✘ No | ✘ Limited |
| Separation of powers | ✔ Yes | ✘ No | ✘ No | ✘ No |
| Wellbeing & Prosperity of all | ✔ Yes (aim) | ✘ No | ✘ No | ✘ No |
- Corruption
- Wealth disparity
- Excessive control by a few over democratic institutions
- Erosion of the judiciary's independence
- Manipulation of information channels
Chapter Summary — Before We Move On
★ Complete Summary for Quick Revision
- Government roles: law and order, defence, welfare, economy, foreign relations, essential services
- Democracy = rule of the people; Lincoln: "government of the people, by the people, for the people"
- Three functions: Legislative (law-making), Executive (implementation), Judicial (enforcement)
- Four key differences across governments: Who decides? How formed? Parts and their roles? What does it work for?
- Two types of democracy: Direct (Switzerland, partially) and Representative
- Two types of representative democracy: Parliamentary (India, Australia) and Presidential (USA, South Korea)
- India = parliamentary democracy — PM & Council of Ministers are also MPs; accountable to Lok Sabha; independent judiciary
- South Korea: unique — single-house legislature (National Assembly); presidential democracy
- Universal adult franchise: India from 1950; Switzerland women from 1971; UK from 1928; USA fully by 1965
- Democracy year: USA 1787, Switzerland 1848, India 1947, Germany 1949, Kenya 1964, Nepal 2008
- Early Indian republic: Vajji mahājanapada — Lichchhavi clan — merit-based elected leaders
- Uttaramerur (10th century CE, Chola): Village sabhā elections with sealed ballot boxes — evidence in Vaikuntha Perumal temple inscriptions
- Rājataraṅgiṇī (Kalhaṇa, 12th century): King Chandrāpīḍa & cobbler — illustrates rājadharma
- Shānti Parva (Mahābhārata): Bhīṣhma's teachings on good governance to Yudhiṣṭhira
- Monarchy: Absolute (Saudi Arabia — Islamic law), Constitutional (UK — ceremonial monarchy + parliamentary democracy)
- Theocracy: Iran (Supreme Leader for life + elected president); Afghanistan; Vatican City
- Dictatorship: Hitler (Germany, 1933; Holocaust — 6 million Jews; WW II 1939-45); Idi Amin (Uganda)
- Oligarchy: Greek origin (olígos = few + árkhō = rule); small powerful group rules
- Roma (Romani) people: originated in India; first settled in eastern Europe
- Challenges to democracy: corruption, wealth disparity, erosion of judicial independence, information manipulation
UPSC-Level Practice MCQs
Chapter 9 — Types of Governments | 20 Questions
