The Marathas are a group of people native to the Deccan plateau, more specifically present-day Maharashtra. They are identified with the language they speak — Marathi — which has had a rich and continuous literary history since the 12th century.

During the 13th century, most of Maharashtra was ruled by the Yadava dynasty with Devagiri (present-day Daulatabad) as its capital. In the early 14th century, the Yadava dynasty was overcome by the Khilji Sultanate from Delhi.

Amidst such political changes, the cultural traditions continued, particularly those related to bhakti (devotion to the divine or a particular deity). Between the 7th and 17th centuries, saints and seekers preferred the path of bhakti to merely external ritualism. These saints composed devotional songs and poetry in the languages of the masses, which allowed their messages to travel far and wide.

In Maharashtra, many saints like Dnyaneshwar, Namdev, Tukaram, Ramdas, etc., gained popularity. They translated important texts like the Upaniṣhads and the Bhagavad Gītā into Marathi. Some also focused on social organisation and political awareness, similar to the Sikh gurus. As a result, the society acquired a solid cultural foundation, which later helped the Marathas to organise themselves into a political power.

By the 17th century, some Maratha chiefs made early attempts at establishing sovereignty, but they proved unsuccessful — until Chhatrapati Shivaji rose to power and brought the Marathas together.

In 1630, Shivaji was born in the Bhonsle clan to Shahji and Jijabai. Shahji served the Deccan sultanates and was often away from his family. In his jāgīr at Pune, Chhatrapati Shivaji grew up under the watchful eyes of Jijabai and some trusted officials.

The Pune region was deeply affected by constant infighting between the Deccan sultans. When he was just 16 years old, Chhatrapati Shivaji launched military campaigns, capturing neglected and unoccupied forts and strengthening their defences. His vision of a sovereign kingdom — ‘Swarājya’ — grew over the years.

Chhatrapati Shivaji’s kingdom soon expanded to India’s west coast. To secure access to coastal resources, he established a navy — a truly revolutionary step:

• The Bijapur Sultanate (Adil Shahi dynasty) maintained merchant ships but had NO full-time naval force.
• Even the Mughal Empire’s use of a navy was very limited.
• Thus, the Maratha Navy was born — its exploits became legendary.

To protect his people, Chhatrapati Shivaji used guerrilla warfare — small groups using speed, surprise, and knowledge of terrain to defeat bigger armies.

The Bijapur Sultanate sent veteran general Afzal Khan against Shivaji. Shivaji lured him to a one-on-one meeting at the foot of Pratapgad fort amid thick forests. There, Chhatrapati Shivaji killed Afzal Khan using the wāgh nakh. The Marathas, hidden in the mountains, then routed the Khan’s army with guerrilla attacks.

The Mughal nobleman Shaista Khan invaded Chhatrapati Shivaji’s territories with a big army for three years. Chhatrapati Shivaji raided Shaista Khan’s camp at night with only a few soldiers. The Khan barely escaped, losing a few fingers, and promptly left Maharashtra. This daring raid resembles the modern-day surgical strike.

As retaliation, Chhatrapati Shivaji sacked Surat, a wealthy Mughal port city (present-day Gujarat). He obtained treasure worth almost one crore of rupees. He was careful not to attack religious places and spared the house of Mohandas Parekh, a charitable man. These events appeared in the London Gazette.

Aurangzeb sent Jai Singh, a Rajput general, against Shivaji. Chhatrapati Shivaji conceded defeat at Purandar Fort (near Pune). He had to give up a sizeable part of his kingdom, and his son Sambhaji had to enter Mughal service.

Chhatrapati Shivaji visited the Mughal court at Agra, where Aurangzeb insulted him. Aurangzeb placed him under house arrest. To escape, Shivaji distributed gifts in big baskets. The guards stopped checking them, and Chhatrapati Shivaji and his son Sambhaji hid in the baskets and made their escape. Aurangzeb could never capture Chhatrapati Shivaji again.

In 1674, Chhatrapati Shivaji was coronated with full Vedic rites at the mountain fortress of Raigad. His formal title became ‘Shri Raja Shiva Chhatrapati’. He started his own era — the Rājyābhiṣheka shaka.

After coronation, Chhatrapati Shivaji embarked upon a conquest of the South (dakṣhiṇa-digvijaya), which included present-day northern Tamil Nadu and parts of Karnataka. This gave the Marathas great strategic depth against the Mughal invasion.

A fever claimed Chhatrapati Shivaji’s life at age fifty. Europeans compared him with ancient generals like Alexander. The Bundela prince Chhatrasal was so inspired that he created an independent kingdom of Bundelkhand. The famous Hindi poet Bhushan specifically came to Maharashtra to compose poems in his praise.

Chhatrapati Shivaji had two sons — Sambhaji and Rajaram. After Shivaji’s death, Sambhaji became the Chhatrapati. Aurangzeb invaded the Deccan and conquered the Bijapur (Adil Shahi) and Golconda (Qutb Shahi) Sultanates. He captured Sambhaji, tortured him brutally, and executed him. He then captured Raigad, the Maratha capital.

After Sambhaji, Rajaram became the Chhatrapati and fled to Gingee (present-day Tamil Nadu). The Marathas staunchly defended their fortresses. Aurangzeb was unable to leave the Deccan and died without subduing the Marathas. The Marathas led by Tarabai (Rajaram’s queen) then made large-scale inroads into Mughal territories.

The centralised state from Shivaji’s time gave way to a more decentralised structure, with the Peshwa (Persian for ‘prime minister’) wielding great influence — even over the Chhatrapati himself. Peshwa Bajirao I and his son Nanasaheb Peshwa were instrumental in the pan-Indian expansion of the Marathas.

The Marathas briefly controlled Lahore, Attock and even Peshawar (modern-day Pakistan). They suffered a disastrous defeat at Panipat in 1761 but quickly recovered under Peshwa Madhavrao I. Under Mahadji Shinde (Mahadji Scindia), they recaptured Delhi in 1771.

Owing to Maratha internal disunity and British superior organisational and technological abilities, the British succeeded in ending Maratha power. In effect, the British took India from the Marathas more than from the Mughals or any other power.

Chhatrapati Shivaji instituted a relatively centralised administration. Key features:

• Abolished hereditary posts and land assignments practised under the Sultans/Mughals.
• Paid salary to every official from the state treasury.
• Officials were periodically transferred to prevent concentration of power.
• Gave pensions to widows of soldiers killed in battle; offered military posts to their sons.
• Minted gold and copper coins in his own name; used Devanagari script — an assertion of cultural identity.

• Chauth — 25% revenue tax from provinces not directly under Maratha control.
• Sardeshmukhi — an additional 10% over and above Chauth.

In return, the Marathas protected those provinces and did not intervene in their internal administration. The Mughals approved this through various treaties; over time, some provinces became part of the Maratha Empire.

Maratha armed forces: infantry, cavalry and navy. Cavalry comprised:

• Bārgīrs — horses and equipment paid for by the state
• Shiledārs — horses and equipment paid for by the soldiers themselves

In the 18th century, the Marathas noticed the superiority of European-style disciplined troops and artillery. In particular, Mahadji Shinde had a large European-style army.

Weapons used: Swords and lances (preferred); guns in sizable numbers; rockets from Shivaji’s days — by 1770, metal tube rockets were also being used.

Forts were the mainstay of Maratha power — essential to control routes and shelter the army during guerrilla warfare.

In the 18th century, Kanhoji Angre guided the Marathas to victory in many naval battles through clever use of geography and tactics, despite Maratha ships being less technologically advanced than European ones.

Europeans forced Indians to purchase naval trade passes (cartaz in Portuguese); any ship without a pass was confiscated. The Marathas challenged this and started demanding passes from Europeans themselves — who labelled Kanhoji Angre a ‘pirate’.

Chhatrapati Shivaji encouraged trade and actively participated in maritime foreign trade. His ships reached ports as far as Mocha (Yemen), Muscat (Oman), and Malacca (Malaysia), carrying cargo like gold and textiles.

Roads were constructed and maintained. In Odisha (18th century), a network of ferries was maintained for riverine transport. Bridges were built over rivers and streams.

The Maratha judicial system was remarkable for its moderation in using capital punishment. The panchāyat — a local gathering of officials and prominent men — was the main body delivering justice. Appeals could be made to a Maratha chief. The kotwāl (police) ensured law and order in prominent towns like Pune and Indore.

Chhatrapati Shivaji’s seal carried a Sanskrit inscription — a notable departure from the prevalent Persian seals:

He commissioned the Rājya-Vyavahāra-Koṣha — providing Sanskrit equivalents for Persian diplomatic words — reducing foreign loanwords in Maratha diplomacy. He was a devout Hindu who respected other religions. His saffron-coloured flag was adopted by all Marathas. He rebuilt desecrated temples and promoted Sanskrit and Marathi literature.

The Bhonsles of Nagpur supported local culture and tradition. The worship of the deity Jagannath at Puri (Odisha), often interrupted during Mughal rule, was revived with Maratha support.

Ekoji, the half-brother of Chhatrapati Shivaji, conquered the Thanjavur region (present-day Tamil Nadu) in the late 17th century, beginning Maratha rule there. The Thanjavur Marathas created a syncretic culture — rich and full of innovation. The cultural environment was multilingual: Tamil, Telugu, and Marathi cultures interacted freely.

• Well-versed in many Indian and European languages.
• Wrote a Marathi play Devendra Kuravanji — describing world geography.
• Patronised musicians; modern Carnatic music took shape during his time.
• Early stages of the classical dance form Bharatanatyam also developed under his patronage.
• Established the Dhanwantari Mahal — a centre of medicine offering free treatment using both Indian and Western medicine.
• Started a printing press — the first such example in India by a native ruler.
• Got the history of the Bhonsle family inscribed on walls of the Brihadishwara temple at Thanjavur — one of the largest single inscriptions in India.

The Maratha rule:

• Challenged Mughal dominance and established the largest Indian empire before the British took over.
• Controlled much of central and northern India.
• Set up an efficient administration and revived local Hindu traditions without religious discrimination.
• Their fight was driven by the fiery ideal of Swarājya.
• Inspired many Indians to believe they could govern themselves — planting the early seeds of India’s freedom movement.