Social background of Indian nationalism

1. Economy and culture in pre-British India

1. Self-sufficient village

2. Urban economy

3. Village culture

4. Urban culture

2. British conquest of India

1. Transformation of agriculture under British rule

2. Commercialization of agriculture

3. Social consequence of the transformation of Indian agriculture

1. Emergence of national agriculture

2. Growth of subdivision of land

3. Effects of fragmentation

4. New land revenue system

5. Commercialization of agriculture

6. Growth of poverty

7. Growth of rural indebtedness

8. Transfer of land from cultivating to non-cultivating owners

9. Rise of serfdom

10. Growing polarization of classes in agrarian areas

11. Rise of agrarian proletariat

12. Rise of parasitic land owning class

13. Colonial character of Indian agriculture

4. Decline of town handicrafts and economic unification of country

5. Decline of the village handicrafts and its consequences

6. Development of Indian industries and its significance

7. Modern means of transport and rise of Indian nationalism

8. Role of modern education in the development of Indian nationalism

9. Political and administrative unification of India under British rule

10. Rise of new social class in India

11. Role of the press in the development of nationalism in India

12. Social and religious reform movements as the expression of national democratic awakening

13. Crusade against untouchability

14. Movement for the emancipation of women

15. Religious reform movements among the Hindu and Muslims

16. Rise of political movements a the expression of Indian nationalism

Modernization of Indian tradition

Cultural analysis

Sanskritization

Sanskritization is a process by which castes placed lower in hierarchy seek upward mobility by emulating the rituals and practices of the upper or dominant castes.

Does not aspire to change the system itself rather aspires to change within the system.

Does not provide any structural change but positional change.

Endogamous source of change.

Operates on 2 models;

1. Brahmanical model – imitation of Brahmans

2. Dominant caste model – imitation of dominant caste

Not confined to Hindu castes but also occurs among tribal and semi-tribal groups.

Negative aspects of Sanskritization:

A high caste Hindu girl has to strictly adhere to Hindu normative expectations. After getting Sanskriized lower caste women too have to confirm to such norms.

Harold A. Gould – Sanskritization is an expression of challenge and revolt against the socio-economic deprivations. It is a cultural camouflage for latent interclass and inter-caste competition for economic and social power.

Westernization

The term has been used to explain the changes brought about in Indian society and culture as a result of over 150 years of British rule.

Primary Westernization:

Changes induced by Westernization on the Indian little traditions.

Two types;

1. Emergence of westernized sub-cultural pattern through a minority section of Indians who first came in contact with western culture.

2. General diffusion of western cultural traits such as new technology, dress, food and changes in the habits and styles of life.

Secondary Westernization:

Changes beyond little tradition in the great tradition of India.

It led to emergence of cultural structures crossing local boundaries, example: education, law, science and technology, new forms of politicization, urbanization, and industrialization.

Sanskritization and Westernization:

Westernization accelerates the pace of Sanskritization.

Sanskritization, Westernization and caste:

While the Brahmins are becoming more westernized, the other castes are becoming more and more Sanskrized.

Westernization, Hinduism and Islam:

Hindu religion is more prone to Westernization as it lacks organization to counter it.

Islam is more equipped to counter it.

Westernization and traditionalisation:

Westernization has also helped traditionalisation.

Indian customs were looked down upon by the Britishers this led many intellectual Indians to trace the history of India.

In the political and cultural field Westernization has given birth not only to nationalism but also to revivalism, communism, casteism, heightened linguistic consciousness and regionalism.

Westoxification v/s Westernization:

Unlike Westernization, which implies the establishment of universalistic norms and the privileging of achievement over birth, Westoxification is about superficial consumerist display of commodities and fads produced in the west.

Little tradition and great tradition

The social structure of the Indian civilization operates at two levels, first that of the folk or unlettered peasants and second that of elite or the reflective few. The cultural processes in the former comprise the little tradition and those in the latter constitute the great tradition.

Multiple traditions

Indian tradition is far too complex and consists of a hierarchy of traditions each of which needs to be analyzed in order to unravel all the ramifications of change.

S. C. Dubey offers a six-fold classification of traditions in India which is to be studied in rural as well as urban context to evaluate change. These are the classical tradition, the emergent national tradition, the regional tradition, the local tradition, the western tradition and the local sub-cultural traditions of social groups.

Structural analysis

Dialectical approach

D. P. Mukherji’s view come closest to the dialectical approach to social change which he identifies as a process of synthesis emerging from the interplay and conflict of contradictory systems of values and class interests. This process started with the impact of Islam on India and continues up to date.

The dialectical approach has been applied to the stud of the emergence of nationalism in India by A. R. Desai.

Cognitive historical or Indological approach

Louis Dumont conceives of Indian society not in terms of relationship but as systems of ideational or value patterns or cognitive structures.

The focus in social change study according to Louis Dumont should be on the reaction of Indian minds to the revelation of Western culture and on how under the impact of cognitive elements of Western culture such as individualism, freedom, democracy, etc. the cognitive of Indian tradition is reacting with rejection or acceptance.

Protests and movements during the colonial period: (Refer Modern History Notes)

1. The Brahmo Samaj

2. The Prarthana Samaj

3. The Arya Samaj

4. The Ramakrishna Mission

5. The Swadeshi Movement

6. The Satyashodhak Samaj Movement

7. The SNDP Movement

8. Reform Movements among Muslims, Sikhs and Parsis

Social reforms

By Social Reform, we mean the full or partial change in the practices, norms, patterns of society which is dysfunctionally affecting society so that a better society can be formed.

But before British rule, the reforms were very partial, limited and the ideological background for reforms was mainly religious. Hence, they were more religious than social.

Raja Ram Mohan Roy protested against sati, and also supported widow remarriage, women education through Brahmo Samaj and opposed ideology worship in Indian society.

In 1856, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar helped to bring a law known as Widow Remarriage Act which helped against the abolition of Sati.

In 1887, Shashipad Banerjee opened a widow ashram outside Calcutta which was followed by Pandita Ramabai in Bombay and Mr. Karve in 1886.

In 1863, Keshav Chandra Sen started a magazine for women known as ‘Vam Bodhini and supported inter caste marriages. He opposed polygyny and supported women education.

In 1875, Swami Dayanand Saraswati founded Arya Samaj and appealed the Hindus to go back to Vedas. He opposed the caste system and supported inter-caste marriages. He also started 'Shuddhi movement'.

In 1897, Swami Vivekanand formed Ramakrishna Mission in Belur who propagated humanitarianism and tried to establish a society based on the principles of Vedanta.

In 1849, Paramhams Sabha was formed in Bombay which opposed untouchability and discrimination in the caste system.

In 1867, under the influence of ideology of Keshav Chandra Sen, Prarthana Samaj was formed in Bombay which opposed idol worship and caste discrimination and supported widow remarriage and women education.

In 1861, Justice Ranade established widow remarriage organization but later attached it with Prarthana Samaj later he associated himself with Bhartiya Samaj Sammelan and worked against child marriage, dowry, education purity, Hindu-Muslim unity etc.

In 1875, Sir Sayyed Ahmed Khan established Aligarh University and supported modernization of Muslims.

In 1882, Pt. Ramabai established Arya Mahila Samaj and also opened widow ashram in Pune.

In 1909, B.R. Shinde established Indian Dalit Mission society and encouraged education amongst the SCs.

In 1904, G. K. Gokhale established Servant of Indian Society who worked for social reforms educational reforms and upliftment of SCs.

In 1917, Annie Besant established Women Indian Association and worked against child marriage, prohibition of child marriage, polygyny and supported women education.

The Social reforms in India were based on diffusionist principles – which were due to impact of western values – evolutionary perspective which was under the process of self realization and introspection.

Social reforms had limited impact as;

1. Society was illiterate, unaware and orthodox.

2. Indian society was dominated by religion and tradition.

3. The Reform movements were largely urban centric and could not reach to the rural side.