Prime Minister Narendra Modi's state visit to Uzbekistan — the first by an Indian PM in several years — produced a wide-ranging outcomes document, a state honour, and a reaffirmation of the India–Uzbekistan Comprehensive Strategic Partnership, signalling India's deepening engagement with Central Asia.

Figure 1 — Uzbekistan: Location and Neighbours

Uzbekistan is doubly landlocked — it borders no ocean-access state — making multimodal connectivity (INSTC, Chabahar) critical for India's trade linkages. Image reproduced with credit for educational use.

• MoUs and Agreements: Multiple MoUs were signed covering defence cooperation, digital infrastructure, health, education, and trade facilitation.
• Connectivity: Both sides reaffirmed commitment to the International North–South Transport Corridor (INSTC) and the significance of Chabahar Port for Afghanistan-transit trade and Central Asian connectivity.
• SCO Context: The visit reinforced India's Central Asia strategy within the SCO framework and the Global South narrative.
• Cultural & Educational: PM Modi visited Tashkent State University of Oriental Studies and laid a wreath at the Shastri Memorial — a nod to the 1966 Agreement.
• Trade: Both sides discussed expanding the bilateral trade basket, reducing dependence on third-country intermediaries, and establishing direct payment mechanisms.

• Uzbekistan's highest state honour for foreign leaders, conferred by President Shavkat Mirziyoyev.
• PM Modi dedicated the award to India's 1.4 billion citizens and described it as a symbol of the enduring friendship between the two civilisations.
• He framed the honour as carrying added responsibility for India to work with Uzbekistan as Global South partners.
• Prelims hook: "Do'stlik" means "Friendship" in Uzbek. The order is the highest honour for foreign leaders; the highest domestic order is the "O'zbekiston Qahramoni" (Hero of Uzbekistan).

• Geographic challenge: Pakistan denies India overland access to Afghanistan and Central Asia; Chabahar and the INSTC are India's workarounds.
• SCO as a platform: India uses the SCO to engage Central Asian states on trade, counter-terrorism, and connectivity without the bilateral frictions that characterise its Pakistan and China relationships.
• Energy & Resources: Central Asia holds significant reserves of oil, gas, uranium, and rare-earth minerals; India has strategic interests in diversifying its energy supply chain.
• Counter-terror: The RATS (Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure) of the SCO coordinates among member states — relevant to India's internal security concerns emanating from Afghanistan post-2021.

• India's trade with Central Asia remains well below potential — intermediary routes through Russia and China dominate, and INSTC operationalisation has been slow.
• Progress on direct payment mechanisms (rupee-som trade) faces the challenge of currency convertibility and correspondent banking gaps.
• Uzbekistan's own economic reforms under President Mirziyoyev have reduced its historical dependence on Russia; India needs to capitalise on this window before Chinese infrastructure investment dominates.
• The Global South framing is rhetorically useful but needs to be backed by concrete concessional financing and capacity-building commitments.

India uses over 80% of its freshwater for agriculture, yet less than half the net sown area has irrigation facilities — a paradox that the Per Drop More Crop scheme tries to resolve through subsidised micro-irrigation, now covering 115 lakh hectares.

• 2006: Centrally Sponsored Scheme (CSS) for Micro Irrigation — the starting point.
• 2010–11: Upgraded to National Mission on Micro Irrigation (NMMI).
• 2014–15: Merged into National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA) under "On Farm Water Management" (OFWM).
• 2015–16 to 2021–22: Named Per Drop More Crop (PDMC) and implemented as a core component of Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY).
• 2022–23 onwards: Placed under restructured PM-RKVY — which merged nine schemes into one umbrella.
• UPSC tip: The PMKSY → PM-RKVY shift is a frequent source of exam confusion. PDMC is the constant; its umbrella has changed.

PDMC supports two broad categories of micro-irrigation systems, each suited to different crop types and field conditions.

Figure 2 — Types of Micro-Irrigation Systems under PDMC (Ministry of Agriculture)

Drip irrigation delivers water at the root zone; sprinkler systems simulate rainfall for high-density crops. Rain-guns can discharge up to 32,000 litres per hour for large-area coverage. Image: Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare, PIB; reproduced for educational use.

• Water is delivered slowly and directly to the root zone through small outlets (emitters) mounted on thin lateral pipes.
• On-line drip: Drippers installed along the pipe wherever a plant is located — suitable for crops with irregular spacing (orchards, vineyards).
• In-line drip: Drippers built into the pipe at fixed intervals — uniform water delivery, used for row crops with even spacing.
• Fertigation: Fertilisers dissolved in the irrigation water and delivered directly to the root zone — reduces fertiliser wastage by 11–19% and improves nutrient uptake efficiency.

• Portable Sprinklers: Moveable main and sub-main pipes; suitable for plains and undulating terrain; versatile for multiple crops.
• Micro Sprinklers: Low-radius; used for leafy vegetables, nurseries, and seedling hardening; also modifies micro-climate near plants.
• Mini Sprinklers: For close-growing crops — groundnut, potato, onion, ginger; also used for frost protection.
• Semi-Permanent Sprinklers: Main and lateral pipes permanently buried; only nozzles on riser pipes are moveable — lower operating cost.
• Rain-Guns (Large Volume Sprinklers): Discharge 10,000–32,000 litres per hour; radius 24–36 m; require high-pressure pumps; for large-area coverage in short time.

• National level: National Stewardship Council (NSC) — strategic direction and guidance.
• State level (three-tier):
  • State Level Sanctioning Committee (SLSC) — plan approval.
  • Inter-Departmental Working Group (IDWG) — cross-departmental coordination.
  • District Level Implementation Committee (DLIC) — field execution and coordination.
• New Flexibility (2026): States can now exceed the earlier 20% cap (40% for NE/Himalayan states) on funds for water conservation structures (diggis, farm ponds) under "Other Interventions."

• NITI Aayog evaluation (2020–21): Income gains of 10–69%; water use efficiency improved 30–70%.
• Economic Survey 2020–21: Water savings 20–48%; energy savings 10–17%; labour cost reduction 30–40%; fertiliser savings 11–19%; crop yield increase 20–38%.
• IIM Ahmedabad study (2023, six states): Farmers adopt micro-irrigation primarily to address declining groundwater, suit crop-specific needs, and secure long-term benefits.
• 2025–26 progress: 12.30 lakh farmers benefited; ~20% women beneficiaries; top states — Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Rajasthan.

• Farmer LAM Srinivasa Rao of Palnadu district adopted drip irrigation in his 2-acre acid lime orchard.
• Yield: rose from 90 to 105 quintals/acre.
• Cultivation cost: fell from ₹3.0 lakh to ₹2.4 lakh.
• Net income: increased from ₹1.5 lakh to ₹2.85 lakh — an additional ₹1.35 lakh per cycle.

• Coverage of 115 lakh hectares represents only 8.11% of net sown area — the pace of adoption remains slow relative to the scale of the water crisis.
• Small and marginal farmers (who hold 86% of holdings but only 47% of cultivated area) face upfront costs and technical capacity barriers even with subsidies.
• Drip and sprinkler systems need regular maintenance; post-installation support is weak in many states.
• The shift from PMKSY to PM-RKVY introduces state-level flexibility but also risks dilution of dedicated micro-irrigation focus if states reallocate funds to other components.
• Fertigation adoption is growing but is limited by access to soluble fertilisers and farmer awareness in rain-fed regions.