Content
- Experts Bat for Increasing Carbon Sequestration of Soil, Prioritising Endemic Trees
- Boost Financial Sector Reforms to Secure $30 Trillion Economy Goal
- SC Pushes for Reform of Colonial-Era Property Laws
- HAL–GE Aerospace $1 Billion Jet Engine Deal
- Kazakhstan to Join Abraham Accords
- Stray Dog Management & ABC Rules
- Rhesus Macaque Protection
Experts Bat for Increasing Carbon Sequestration of Soil, Prioritising Endemic Trees
Why in News?
- At The Hindu Sustainability Summit 2025, experts and policymakers emphasised the urgent need to enhance carbon sequestration in Indian soils (currently ~0.15%) to 2–5%, and to prioritise endemic tree species for long-term ecological balance.
The discussion highlighted climate governance, ESG integration, and sustainable industrial practices for achieving India’s climate and net-zero goals.
Relevance :
GS 3 – Environment & Sustainable Development
- Climate Change Mitigation & Carbon Sequestration
- Biodiversity Conservation & Role of Endemic Species
- Sustainable Agriculture & Soil Health Management
- Corporate ESG & Green Governance
- Climate Policy (TN Climate Mission, SDGs, Net Zero 2070)
Background
- Carbon sequestration: The process of capturing and storing atmospheric CO₂ in vegetation, soil, and other carbon sinks.
- India’s soil organic carbon levels have declined drastically due to intensive agriculture, deforestation, and urbanisation.
- The summit theme — “Policy and Governance for Climate Action” — focused on cross-sector collaboration between government, industry, and civil society to accelerate sustainability transitions.
Key Highlights
- Soil Carbon and Endemic Trees
- Sultan Ahmed Ismail, Member, State Planning Commission (TN), urged for increasing soil carbon to at least 2–5%.
- Emphasised endemic trees over fast-growing exotics, as they better support local biodiversity, soil microbes, and earthworm activity.
- Highlighted the need for inter-departmental coordination to align agricultural, forestry, and climate policies.
- Corporate Climate Action: CPCL’s Example
- Rohit Agrawala, Director (Finance), CPCL, outlined a “Planet–People–Profit” integrated approach.
- Key sustainability milestones:
- Zero freshwater withdrawal; first sewerage reclamation plant in Asia + 5.8 MGD desalination unit.
- Rainwater harvesting: 57 sites; stormwater augmentation: 79,500 KL.
- Clean energy transition: RLNG, BS-VI fuels, 17.6 MW solar & wind; 400 kV grid for 100 MW renewable integration.
- CPCL follows Business Responsibility and Sustainability Reporting (BRSR) and integrated ESG reporting, aligned with the UN SDGs.
- Corporate Governance and ESG Leadership
- Jayanthi Raju Vadivelu (ERM) emphasised board-level accountability for sustainability strategy.
- ESG must go beyond compliance — serve as a driver of innovation and green finance.
- Proper ESG disclosures increase investor trust and attract capital for low-carbon technologies.
- Public Policy and Local Governance
- Girish Palwe, Assistant Mission Director, Tamil Nadu Climate Change Mission, shared progress on the Chief Minister’s Green Fellowship Programme, implemented across all districts.
- Advocated for bottom-up, locally adaptive climate policies rather than uniform one-size-fits-all frameworks.
Key Data Points
- Current soil carbon content in India: ~0.15%.
- Ideal level for resilient ecosystems: 2–5%.
- CPCL renewable energy capacity: 17.6 MW; goal to scale to 100 MW import capacity.
Significance
- Environmental: Enhancing soil carbon improves water retention, biodiversity, and climate resilience.
- Economic: Healthy soils reduce fertilizer dependency and enhance agricultural productivity.
- Governance: ESG reporting and localised policy execution improve accountability and stakeholder engagement.
- Climate Impact: Supports India’s net-zero by 2070 and Panchamrit goals.
Challenges
- Lack of cross-sector coordination between agriculture, forest, and environment departments.
- Overemphasis on exotic species in afforestation drives.
- Low awareness and technical capacity for soil carbon management.
- Limited ESG literacy in small and medium enterprises.
Way Forward
- Mainstream soil carbon enhancement into national climate strategies (NDCs, National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture).
- Incentivise endemic afforestation and regenerative agricultural practices.
- Institutionalise ESG-based sustainability reporting across public and private sectors.
- Use AI and remote sensing to track soil carbon and forest health.
Boost Financial Sector Reforms to Secure $30 Trillion Economy Goal
Why in News?
- The World Bank, in its latest Financial Sector Assessment (FSA) report, said that India must accelerate financial sector reforms to achieve its goal of becoming a $30-trillion economy by 2047.
- The report emphasized the need to enhance private capital mobilisation, deepen markets, and strengthen financial stability.
Relevance:
GS 3 – Economy
- Financial Sector Reforms & Stability
- Private Capital Mobilisation & Long-Term Financing
- Digital Financial Infrastructure & Fintech Regulation
- Role of IMF–World Bank FSAP Assessments
- Vision 2047 – $30 Trillion Economy Roadmap
- Financial Inclusion & Institutional Strengthening (RBI, SEBI, IRDAI, PFRDA)
Background
- Vision 2047: India aims to transition from a ~$4 trillion economy (2025) to $30 trillion by 2047, coinciding with 100 years of Independence.
- Financial Sector Assessment Program (FSAP): A joint IMF–World Bank initiative to evaluate financial stability, regulatory soundness, and systemic risks.
- The previous FSAP (2017) had noted structural weaknesses and a need for stronger non-bank oversight.
Key Findings of the 2025 FSA Report
- India’s financial system has become more resilient, diversified, and inclusive compared to 2017.
- Banking sector health improved: NPAs reduced from >11% (2017–18) to ~3% (2024).
- Capital markets deepened: Equity market capitalization at ~110% of GDP; corporate bond market expanding.
- Fintech revolution: Growth of digital payments (UPI), microfinance, and financial inclusion through PMJDY and Aadhaar-based systems.
- Despite gains, credit-to-GDP ratio (~56%) remains below emerging market peers (China ~180%).
World Bank Recommendations
- Deepen Capital Markets
- Promote long-term financing instruments (corporate bonds, REITs, InvITs).
- Simplify regulatory frameworks to attract foreign and domestic investors.
- Strengthen Non-Banking Financial Companies (NBFCs)
- Improve supervision, governance, and capital adequacy.
- Encourage risk-based regulation and reduce over-dependence on bank funding.
- Enhance Private Capital Mobilisation
- Develop venture and private equity ecosystems to fund innovation and infrastructure.
- Strengthen domestic institutional investors (pension, insurance funds).
- Financial Stability and Inclusion
- Strengthen coordination between RBI, SEBI, IRDAI, and PFRDA for systemic risk oversight.
- Enhance financial literacy and consumer protection.
- Leverage Technology
- Expand digital infrastructure for financial access.
- Implement strong data governance and cybersecurity frameworks.
Challenges Identified
- Low penetration of long-term finance and insurance.
- High dependence on public sector banks.
- Regulatory fragmentation across sectors.
- Rising household leverage and informal credit channels.
Significance
- A robust financial sector is key to sustaining 8–9% annual growth needed for a $30-trillion economy.
- Mobilising domestic private capital will reduce reliance on government borrowing and FDI.
- Aligns with India’s Amrit Kaal Vision 2047 and GIFT City reforms for global financial competitiveness.
SC Pushes for Reform of Colonial-Era Property Laws
Why in News?
- The Supreme Court directed the Law Commission of India to draft a report on reforming India’s outdated property laws — the Transfer of Property Act (1882), Registration Act (1908), and Stamp Act (1899).
- The Court observed that property transactions in India remain “traumatic” and that property disputes form nearly 66% of civil litigation in the country.
Relevance :
GS 2 – Polity & Governance
- Legal Reforms & Law Commission Role
- Centre–State Relations (Land as State Subject)
- Good Governance & Ease of Doing Business
- Technology in Governance (Blockchain, Digitisation of Land Records)
- Right to Property – Constitutional & Judicial Dimensions
Background
- Colonial-era origin: These Acts were enacted under British rule, designed for a limited land market and a different administrative context.
- Post-Independence neglect: Despite urbanization, digitization, and rising property value, core provisions of these laws remain unchanged.
- Land as State subject: Registration rules, stamp duties, and verification procedures vary widely across states, causing complexity and inefficiency.
Key Judicial Observations
- Justice P.S. Narasimha and Justice Joymalya Bagchi called current property transactions “traumatic” due to:
- Fake documents and title fraud.
- Land encroachments and unclear titles.
- Delays in verification and registration.
- Red tape and corruption at sub-registrar offices.
- Outdated procedural requirements (e.g., two witnesses).
- Property ownership is a constitutional right, and smooth transfer processes reflect institutional maturity of a nation.
Court’s Directives
- Law Commission’s task: Recommend reforms to modernize and harmonize property laws with present socio-economic realities.
- Centre’s role: Lead digitization and integration of property registration across states.
- Adoption of blockchain:
- Suggested to ensure transparency, authenticity, and immutability in land records.
- Can record ownership history, encumbrances, and transfers securely on a distributed ledger.
Issues Identified
- Fragmented land data (varies by State).
- Manual documentation leading to corruption.
- Multiple agencies involved in verification.
- Poor grievance redress and dispute resolution mechanisms.
Reform Measures Suggested
- National Uniform Property Registration Framework.
- Full digitization of land titles under Digital India Land Records Modernization Programme (DILRMP).
- Integration of property databases with Aadhaar and GIS mapping.
- Blockchain-based title registry to prevent fraud and duplication.
HAL–GE Aerospace $1 Billion Jet Engine Deal
Why in News?
- Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) signed a $1 billion (≈ ₹8,870 crore) agreement with GE Aerospace (USA) to procure 113 F404-GE-IN20 jet engines for India’s Tejas Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) Mk-1A fleet.
- The deliveries will start in 2027 and conclude by 2032.
- The deal was finalized despite recent trade tensions after the U.S. imposed 50% tariffs on Indian goods under Trump’s administration.
Relevance :
GS 3 – Internal Security / Economy / Science & Tech
- Defence Indigenisation & Atmanirbhar Bharat
- India–US Strategic & Defence Industrial Cooperation
- Indigenous Fighter Aircraft (Tejas, AMCA)
- Technology Transfer (ToT) & Industrial Ecosystem Development
- National Security & Air Power Modernisation
Background: Tejas LCA Programme
- Tejas is India’s indigenously developed 4.5-generation multirole light combat aircraft, designed by Aeronautical Development Agency (ADA) and produced by HAL.
- Objective: Replace ageing MiG-21s and enhance India’s self-reliance in combat aviation.
- Variants:
- Tejas Mk-1: Operational version currently in IAF service.
- Tejas Mk-1A: Advanced variant with better avionics, radar, and electronic warfare systems.
- Tejas Mk-2: Medium-weight fighter (under development).
- Twin-engine Deck-Based Fighter (TEDBF): For Indian Navy.
About the F404-GE-IN20 Engine
- Manufacturer: GE Aerospace, USA.
- Type: Afterburning turbofan engine.
- Thrust: ~84 kN with afterburner.
- Current Use: Powers Tejas Mk-1 and Mk-1A aircraft.
- Performance: Provides high thrust-to-weight ratio, low maintenance, and operational reliability.
- Indigenous Integration: HAL to perform final integration, assembly, and testing in India under U.S. export controls.
Details of the 2025 Deal
- Engines Ordered: 113 units for 97 Tejas Mk-1A fighters (16 spares).
- Contract Value: ~US $1 billion.
- Timeline: Delivery 2027–2032.
- Part of: ₹62,370 crore contract (Sept 2025) for 97 Tejas Mk-1A aircraft signed with the Ministry of Defence (MoD).
- Support Package: Includes training, spares, and maintenance support from GE.
- Objective: Sustain IAF’s fighter squadron strength and ensure production continuity till Tejas Mk-2 is operational.
Strategic Significance
1. Strengthening Self-Reliance (Atmanirbhar Bharat)
- Boosts indigenous production under ‘Make in India–Defence’.
- HAL to manufacture critical components in India under the Transfer of Technology (ToT) clause.
2. Enhancing Air Power
- Tejas Mk-1A will equip at least six IAF squadrons, replacing MiG-21s.
- Enhanced AESA radar, Beyond Visual Range (BVR) missiles, and Electronic Warfare suites will improve combat readiness.
3. Indo–U.S. Defence Cooperation
- Builds on the GE–HAL MoU (June 2023) to co-produce advanced F414 engines for the Tejas Mk-2.
- Aligns with INDUS-X initiative to deepen defence-industrial collaboration between India and the U.S.
4. Technology Ecosystem
- GE engines to support domestic supply chain development — casting, machining, and testing capabilities within HAL’s Bangalore and Koraput divisions.
- Potential knowledge transfer will assist in future indigenous engine programs (GTX-35VS Kaveri revival).
Challenges
- Dependence on U.S. technology: Export restrictions under ITAR (International Traffic in Arms Regulations) may limit full ToT.
- Cost overruns and delays: Historically affected indigenous fighter projects.
- Supply chain sensitivity: Any diplomatic strain with the U.S. could affect deliveries or spares.
Broader Context
- India’s Fighter Strength: IAF currently operates ~30–31 squadrons vs sanctioned 42; Tejas Mk-1A and Mk-2 are critical to bridge the gap.
- Complementary Projects:
- F414 Engine Deal (2023): For Tejas Mk-2 (98 kN thrust), to be co-manufactured in India with 80% local content.
- AMCA (Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft): Indigenous 5th-generation stealth fighter under development; potential future GE collaboration.
Economic and Strategic Impact
| Aspect | Impact |
| Industrial Output | Boost to HAL and ancillary MSMEs in aerospace sector |
| Employment | Estimated 5000+ direct and indirect skilled jobs |
| Export Potential | Tejas being offered to Argentina, Egypt, Philippines |
| Strategic Leverage | Reinforces Indo–U.S. defence-industrial trust post-2023 Critical Technology Sharing pact |
Recent Related Developments
- June 2023: GE & HAL signed MoU to co-manufacture F414 engines in India (50% local content target).
- Sept 2025: MoD approved ₹62,370-crore procurement of 97 Tejas Mk-1A.
- 2025-26 Budget: Allocation of ₹1.72 lakh crore for indigenous defence procurement — 75% of capital outlay.
- India’s Defence Exports: Crossed ₹21,000 crore (2024–25), highest ever.
Kazakhstan to Join Abraham Accords
Why in News ?
- U.S. President Donald Trump announced that Kazakhstan is set to join the Abraham Accords — the U.S.-brokered normalization framework between Israel and Arab/Muslim-majority nations.
- This marks the first addition to the Accords during Trump’s second term, reflecting renewed U.S. diplomatic outreach in West and Central Asia.
Relevance :
GS 2 – International Relations
- India’s West Asia & Central Asia Policy
- U.S. Diplomacy & Middle East Peace Architecture
- Abraham Accords – Regional Geopolitical Realignment
- Kazakhstan’s Multi-Vector Foreign Policy
- Implications for India’s I2U2, Energy, and Connectivity Strategy
The Abraham Accords
- Origin: Signed on 15 September 2020, mediated by the U.S. under Trump administration.
- Initial Signatories:
- Israel
- United Arab Emirates (UAE)
- Bahrain
- Later joined by Morocco (Dec 2020) and Sudan (Jan 2021).
- Objective: Normalization of diplomatic, economic, and technological relations between Israel and Arab/Muslim-majority states.
- Strategic Goal:
- Strengthen regional stability through U.S.-backed alignment against Iran.
- Promote Arab–Israeli cooperation in defence, energy, tech, and trade.
Kazakhstan’s Position
- Diplomatic History:
- Established formal ties with Israel in 1992, shortly after independence from the Soviet Union.
- Israel has maintained an embassy in Astana (now Astana again since 2022) since 1996.
- Current Move:
- Symbolic expansion of the Abraham Accords rather than a new normalization, since Kazakhstan already has official relations with Israel.
- Seen as a Central Asian endorsement of the U.S.-Israel peace framework.
- Motivation:
- Balance between Moscow–Beijing alignment and Western engagement.
- Enhance trade, technology, and defence cooperation with Israel.
- Project Kazakhstan as a bridge between Muslim-majority nations and Israel.
Strategic Significance
- 1. For the U.S.:
- Signals continuity of U.S. influence in Middle East–Central Asia arc.
- Counters growing Chinese presence under the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI).
- 2. For Israel:
- Expands normalization outreach beyond Arab heartland to post-Soviet Muslim republics.
- Potential gateway for deeper ties with Uzbekistan, Azerbaijan, and Turkmenistan.
- 3. For Kazakhstan:
- Enhances geopolitical autonomy amid pressure from Russia and China.
- Boosts high-tech, agriculture, and water-management partnerships with Israel.
- Aligns with its “multi-vector foreign policy” doctrine — balancing relations with all major powers.
Comparison with Other Abraham Accord Members
| Country | Year Joined | Key Normalization Driver | Economic/Strategic Gains |
| UAE | 2020 | Trade, technology, Iran deterrence | $2.5B trade by 2023 |
| Bahrain | 2020 | U.S.-led security umbrella | Enhanced defence ties |
| Morocco | 2020 | U.S. recognition of Western Sahara claim | Defence + tourism growth |
| Sudan | 2021 | Removal from U.S. terror list | Aid and economic reintegration |
| Kazakhstan (2025) | Symbolic | Tech, agriculture, geopolitical balancing | Bridges Central Asia with West Asia |
Geopolitical Context
- Comes amid Israel–Hamas conflict (2025 phase) and regional tensions.
- Kazakhstan maintains cautious neutrality but supports peaceful dialogue and interfaith diplomacy.
- U.S. likely to leverage Kazakhstan’s entry to revive momentum for other Muslim nations — Oman, Indonesia, and Saudi Arabia — to follow.
Recent Related Developments
- Saudi Arabia–Israel normalization talks paused post-2023 Gaza conflict but may resume under new diplomatic mediation.
- India’s I2U2 bloc (India-Israel-UAE-USA) aligns indirectly with Abraham Accord framework, promoting tech and connectivity projects.
- Abraham Fund (U.S.-UAE-Israel) has financed renewable energy projects in West Asia and Africa.
Criticisms & Challenges
- Accords criticized for bypassing Palestinian issue, diluting Arab consensus on two-state solution.
- Central Asian participation could risk alienating Iran, a regional neighbor and key trade partner.
- Domestic Islamist sentiment in Kazakhstan remains cautious toward overt alignment with Israel.
Stray Dog Management & ABC Rules
Why in News ?
- The Supreme Court of India (Nov 2025) directed removal of stray dogs from public premises such as schools, hospitals, bus stands, railway stations, and sports complexes.
- Dogs must be sterilised and vaccinated before being shifted to designated shelters in accordance with the Animal Birth Control (ABC) Rules, 2023.
- The ruling aims to balance public safety and animal welfare amid rising incidents of stray dog attacks and rabies cases.
Relevance :
GS 2 – Governance & Social Justice
- Animal Welfare Laws (PCA Act, ABC Rules 2023)
- Centre–State Implementation & Local Governance
- Judicial Oversight in Policy Enforcement (SC Directive 2025)
- Public Health (Rabies Control, Waste Management)
- Ethical Governance & Humane Animal Management
Background: The Stray Dog Issue in India
- Estimated population: ~6.3 crore stray dogs (Livestock Census, 2019; rising trend).
- Rabies burden: ~18,000–20,000 human deaths per year (WHO, 2023) — 36% of global deaths occur in India.
- Urban conflict: Over 1.5 lakh dog-bite cases annually in states like Kerala, Maharashtra, and Uttar Pradesh.
- Root causes — poor waste management, unregulated breeding, and lack of sterilization infrastructure.
Legal Basis
- Parent Law: Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960.
- Implementing Rule: Animal Birth Control (ABC) Rules, 2023 (replacing ABC Rules, 2001).
- Objective:
- Control population through sterilisation.
- Vaccinate to prevent rabies.
- Protect animal rights under Article 51A(g) (fundamental duty to show compassion to living creatures).
Key Provisions of ABC Rules, 2023
- Terminology Change:
- Uses term “Community Animals” instead of “Stray Dogs” — recognising their territorial nature.
- Implementation Responsibility:
- Local bodies must ensure sterilisation and vaccination.
- RWAs (Resident Welfare Associations) or Apartment Associations responsible for feeding and care of community animals (Rule 20).
- Sheltering Mandate:
- Sterilised and vaccinated dogs can be relocated to designated shelters, not abandoned or killed.
- Dispute Resolution:
- Local committees including the Chief Veterinary Officer, Police, RWA representatives, and others to resolve disputes related to animal feeding or nuisance.
- Monitoring:
- State Animal Welfare Boards to oversee compliance.
Supreme Court’s Directive (Nov 2025)
- Order Highlights:
- Remove stray dogs from educational and healthcare premises to prevent safety risks.
- Allow presence of dogs only after sterilisation and vaccination.
- Mandated state-wise implementation plans under ABC Rules.
- The Court emphasised humane handling — no culling or cruelty permitted.
Past Legal and Policy Developments
- ABC (Dogs) Rules, 2001: Introduced sterilisation–vaccination model.
- 2015 SC Judgment (Animal Welfare Board of India vs. People for Elimination of Stray Troubles):
- Prohibited killing of stray dogs; allowed only sterilisation and vaccination.
- Municipal Performance:
- Despite the law, sterilisation coverage <30% of total stray population (MoEFCC data, 2022).
Challenges in Implementation
- Inadequate funding to local bodies.
- Shortage of veterinary infrastructure and shelters.
- Conflict between RWAs and animal feeders.
- Lack of coordination between Animal Welfare Boards, NGOs, and municipalities.
Way Forward
- Integrated Rabies Elimination Strategy (WHO 2030 target): “Zero human deaths from dog-mediated rabies.”
- Strengthen municipal-level sterilisation centres and vaccination drives.
- Introduce waste management reforms to cut food access for stray dogs.
- Public awareness on coexistence and responsible pet ownership.
Related Developments
- National Rabies Control Programme (NRCP) under MoHFW targets 70% dog vaccination coverage.
- India–WHO Rabies Roadmap (2023): Collaborative surveillance and mass dog vaccination campaigns.
- Municipal bylaws being revised in Delhi, Mumbai, and Bengaluru to align with ABC 2023 norms.
Rhesus Macaque Protection
Why in News ?
- The Standing Committee of the National Board for Wildlife (SC-NBWL), chaired by the Union Environment Minister, has recommended reinstating the Rhesus Macaque under Schedule II of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
- This move aims to restore statutory protection to the species after earlier delisting, ensuring enforcement against illegal capture, cruelty, and exploitation.
Relevance :
GS 3 – Environment & Biodiversity
- Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 – Legal Framework & Amendments
- Species Protection & Human–Wildlife Conflict Management
- Ecological Role of Primates & Conservation Biology
- Institutional Mechanisms (NBWL, WII, State Forest Departments)
- Ethical Wildlife Governance & Habitat Restoration
Rhesus Macaque (Macaca mulatta)
- Distribution: Widely found across northern, central, and northeastern India; also in neighboring Nepal, Bangladesh, and China.
- Habitat: Extremely adaptable – forests, urban, and rural landscapes.
- IUCN Red List: Least Concern – due to large, stable populations.
- Population in India: Estimated 5–6 million individuals (MoEFCC data, 2023).
- Cultural significance: Considered sacred in Hindu mythology (linked to Lord Hanuman).
- Scientific use: One of the most studied non-human primates; used in biomedical research, particularly for vaccine development.
Legal Framework
- Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972:
- Schedule I & II: Provide highest protection — illegal to hunt, capture, or trade.
- Schedule III & IV: Lower level of protection.
- Earlier Status Change:
- The Rhesus Macaque was earlier listed in Schedule II, but its protection was diluted due to overpopulation in some urban areas leading to conflict.
- Several states (e.g., Himachal Pradesh, Delhi) sought culling permissions, citing crop damage and aggressive encounters.
Current Development (2025 Update)
- SC-NBWL Recommendation (Nov 2025):
- Reinstatement in Schedule II for stronger protection.
- Directs state governments to:
- Prepare site-specific conservation and conflict management plans.
- Identify and categorize areas of high human-monkey conflict.
- Develop rescue and rehabilitation centres.
- Backed by Central Zoo Authority and National Tiger Conservation Authority.
- Baseline Study: To be conducted by Wildlife Institute of India (WII) for mapping population density and conflict zones.
States Supporting Reinstatement
- Six states: Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Uttarakhand, West Bengal, Himachal Pradesh, and Arunachal Pradesh.
- Others like Assam, Rajasthan, Meghalaya, Punjab, and Jammu & Kashmir expressed conditional support, citing conflict management challenges.
Reasons for Upgrading Protection
- Cruelty and Exploitation: Growing instances of illegal trade, poaching for research, and mistreatment.
- Loss of Habitat: Urbanization and deforestation pushing macaques into human settlements.
- Genetic Diversity Conservation: Uncontrolled translocation and conflict killings affecting natural population structures.
- Ecological Role: Important seed disperser and part of forest food web.
Human–Wildlife Conflict Dimension
- Himachal Pradesh reported over 25,000 conflict cases (2015–2023).
- Annual crop loss estimated at ₹500 crore (National Agricultural Research data).
- Past culling drives (2016–2018) proved ineffective, highlighting the need for non-lethal management — sterilization, habitat restoration, and waste management.
Related Developments
- 2022 Amendment to Wildlife (Protection) Act:
- Added Schedules I–IV simplification, Schedule V (vermin list) revision.
- Empowered Centre to delist species temporarily to manage conflict.
- Simian Control Programs: Himachal Pradesh, Delhi, and Uttarakhand have run sterilization drives; over 1.3 lakh macaques sterilized since 2010.
- Rescue Centre Models: Kerala and Tamil Nadu developing macaque rescue and rewilding centres under NBWL funding.
Global Context
- Rhesus macaques are native to South and Southeast Asia, but were introduced in Florida (USA) in the 1930s for tourism — now an invasive species there.
- International trade controlled under CITES Appendix II.
