Current Affairs 12 November 2025

Content

1. India Recorded the Highest Greenhouse Gas Emissions for 2024
2. Why Do Astronauts Wear Pressurised Suits?
3. What’s the Status of the Rare Earth Hypothesis?
4. Don’t Use COP30 to Change Paris Deal ‘Architecture’: India
5. SC Judge: Imported Ideas May Not Save Endangered Species
6. All Plastics Are Not the Same: Why Only Some Plastics Can Be Recycled
7. India Must Safeguard Its Baryte Reserves

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India recorded the highest greenhouse gas emissions for 2024

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Why in News?

• India registered the world’s largest absolute increase in GHG emissions in 2024 — adding 165 MtCO₂e, the highest among all countries.
• India became the 3rd largest global emitter (after China and the U.S.), but its per capita emissions remain < half the global average (3 tCO₂e vs 6.4 tCO₂e).
• Global emissions hit a record 57,700 MtCO₂e in 2024, rising mainly from fossil fuels, methane (CH₄), and land-use changes.

Significance: Highlights India’s development–climate paradox — rapid industrial growth versus equity-based emission responsibility.

Relevance:
GS 3 – Environment & Climate Change
• Global emission trends and India’s emission profile (sector-wise)
• Climate finance, carbon intensity, and sustainable development trade-offs
• Policies: NDCs, National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC), Mission LiFE
• Role of renewables, hydrogen, and EVs in emission reduction
• Carbon markets and India’s net-zero pathway

GS 2 – International Relations
• India’s climate diplomacy in UNFCCC and COP30 context
• Principle of CBDR-RC and Global South negotiations
• Climate justice and equity in international climate regimes

Key Data Snapshot (2024)

Indicator	Global	India
Total GHG emissions	57,700 MtCO₂e (record high)	~3,900 MtCO₂e
Increase over 2023	+1,500 MtCO₂e	+165 MtCO₂e (largest globally)
Share in global emissions	—	~6.7%
Per capita GHG emissions	6.4 tCO₂e	3 tCO₂e (<50% of global avg)
Growth rate of per capita emissions (2023–24)	0.04%	3.7%

Sources of GHG Emissions 

A. CO₂ (69% of total GHGs)

• Origin: Combustion of coal, oil, natural gas.
• Sectors:
  • Power generation (~40%)
  • Industry (steel, cement, fertilizers)
  • Transport (rapid rise in road and aviation emissions)
  • Residential fuel use (LPG, biomass, coal).

B. CH₄ (16% of total)

• Agriculture: Paddy fields, enteric fermentation (livestock).
• Waste: Landfills, sewage.
• Energy: Fugitive emissions during coal mining and gas extraction.

C. N₂O & F-gases (remaining share)

• Fertiliser use and industrial refrigerants (HFCs, SF₆).

India’s Emission Profile – Drivers and Dynamics

• Economic Growth: Energy-intensive industrialisation under Make in India & infrastructure expansion.
• Coal Dependence: ~70% electricity from coal-based plants.
• Urbanisation: Rising transport & construction emissions.
• Agriculture: Methane from rice cultivation and livestock.
• Land-use Change: Deforestation, loss of carbon sinks.
• Energy Inequality: Reliance on biomass and diesel in rural sectors.

Climate Justice Perspective

• Principle of Common But Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR):
  India’s historical share (1850–2019) is only ~4% of cumulative global emissions, far below developed nations.
• Equity argument: India’s low per capita and developmental needs justify gradual transition.
• Climate Finance Gaps: $100 billion annual pledge (COP15) remains unfulfilled — hampering developing nations.

India’s National Commitments & Policy Framework

A. NDCs under the Paris Agreement (Updated 2022):

• Reduce emission intensity of GDP by 45% (by 2030) from 2005 levels.
• Achieve 50% cumulative power capacity from non-fossil sources by 2030.
• Create an additional carbon sink of 2.5–3 billion tonnes CO₂e through afforestation.

B. Key Domestic Schemes:

• National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) – 8 missions (Solar, Energy Efficiency, Green India, etc.).
• Perform, Achieve & Trade (PAT) – industrial energy efficiency.
• Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid & Electric Vehicles (FAME).
• National Hydrogen Mission (2021) – Green hydrogen target: 5 MMT by 2030.
• Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (2023).
• Lifestyle for Environment (LiFE) Mission – individual responsibility in emissions reduction.

Implications of Rising Emissions

Environmental:

• Increased frequency of heatwaves, floods, and erratic monsoons.
• Glacial melt and sea-level rise threaten Himalayan and coastal ecosystems.

Economic:

• Higher adaptation and loss-damage costs (≈2–2.5% of GDP by 2050).
• Potential carbon-border tariffs (like EU’s CBAM) hurting exports.

Social:

• Agriculture distress due to changing rainfall and temperature patterns.
• Health risks from air pollution (India already has 7/10 most polluted cities).

Strategic:

• Pressure in international forums (COP30 in Belém) to adopt faster decarbonisation.

Way Forward

A. Energy Transition

• Phase down coal via Just Transition Plans (JTPs) for coal regions.
• Scale up renewables to 500 GW by 2030; accelerate grid storage & green hydrogen.
• Expand nuclear and offshore wind portfolios.

B. Carbon Management

• Develop Carbon Capture, Utilisation & Storage (CCUS) infrastructure.
• Promote bio-CNG, ethanol blending (target 20% by 2025).

C. Agriculture and Methane Mitigation

• Alternate Wetting and Drying (AWD) for paddy to cut CH₄.
• Bio-digesters and feed additives for livestock methane reduction.

D. Forest and Land Use

• Expand mangroves & community forestry.
• Implement Green Credit Programme (2023) for carbon sinks.

E. International & Financial

• Strengthen Climate Finance Mobilisation through GCF, LiFE Bonds.
• Push for Loss & Damage Fund operationalisation at COP30.

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Why do astronauts wear pressurised suits?

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• Purpose: To counter the absence of atmospheric pressure in space that otherwise causes ebullism (boiling of body fluids), hypoxia, and tissue expansion.
• Function:
  • Maintains internal body pressure.
  • Supplies oxygen and removes CO₂.
  • Provides thermal regulation and micrometeoroid protection.
  • Prevents rapid decompression injuries.

Relevance:

GS 3 – Science & Technology (Space Technology)

• Human spaceflight safety systems – pressure, oxygen, and temperature regulation

• Gaganyaan mission and indigenous crew module development

• Collaboration with Russia (Sokol KV-2 suit technology)

• Physics behind decompression, Boyle’s law, and vacuum effects on human body

• Space suit design as application of materials and life-support engineering

Why is wearing IVA suits mandatory during ascent and descent?

• Ascent & Descent = Critical Phases
  • Highest risk of cabin depressurisation, high G-forces, vibration, and thermal stress.
  • In 1971, Soyuz 11 tragedy: A cabin vent valve opened prematurely at 168 km altitude → pressure loss → 3 cosmonauts suffocated.
• Post-Soyuz Safety Reform:
  • Mandatory IVA (Intra-Vehicular Activity) suits during these phases.
  • Serves as a personal life-support backup in emergencies.

Types of Suits:

Type	Purpose	Key Features	Weight
EVA (Extra-Vehicular Activity)	Spacewalks / external repairs	Miniature spacecraft; 12–14 layers; protection from vacuum, radiation, micrometeoroids	100–130 kg
IVA (Intra-Vehicular Activity)	Inside spacecraft; during launch/re-entry	Pressure maintenance, oxygen backup, temperature control	8–10 kg

Which IVA suit does Gaganyaan use?

• Model: Sokol KV-2 suit (Russian, by Zvezda).
• Features:
  • Two layers:
    • Inner pressure bladder: Rubberised polycaprolactam — airtight barrier.
    • Outer restraint layer: White nylon canvas — mechanical strength.
  • Heritage: Used in 128+ Soyuz missions.
  • Functionality: Ensures survival in case of cabin pressure loss during launch/re-entry.
• Significance: Symbolises India’s step in indigenous human spaceflight capability while leveraging international collaboration.

Key Concept — Atmospheric Pressure

• At sea level: ~1 atm (~101.3 kPa) = ~20 tonnes of force on human body.
• Human physiology is tuned to this pressure; any sudden drop (e.g., vacuum) leads to lethal decompression effects within seconds.

The Gist

• Earth’s atmosphere ensures pressure balance vital for life.
• In vacuum, body fluids boil and oxygen deprivation occurs instantly.
• Pressure suits = lifesaving interface between biology and vacuum.
• Gaganyaan adopts the globally proven Sokol KV-2 IVA suit for crew safety during critical mission phases.

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What’s the status of the rare earth hypothesis?

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 Why in News ?

• Recent James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) findings on TRAPPIST-1 system (2023–24) revealed that even Earth-sized exoplanets may lack stable atmospheres, questioning how common Earth-like conditions are.
• This revived interest in the Rare Earth Hypothesis (REH) — whether complex life like that on Earth is truly rare in the universe.
• New exoplanet data (Kepler & JWST missions) have provided mixed evidence:
  • Earth-sized planets in habitable zones are not rare.
  • But stable, life-supporting conditions remain uncommon.

Relevance:
GS 3 – Science & Technology
• Exoplanet discovery missions – JWST, Kepler, TRAPPIST-1
• Rare Earth Hypothesis (Ward & Brownlee) – planetary habitability factors
• Role of astrophysics, geology, and biology in astrobiology research
• Technological advancements in telescope instrumentation and data analytics

GS 1 – Geography (Universe & Earth Systems)
• Earth’s uniqueness and conditions supporting life
• Relevance of planetary evolution and habitability in Earth science

Origin of the Hypothesis

• Proposed by:
  • Peter D. Ward (palaeontologist) & Donald Brownlee (astronomer).
  • In their 2000 book “Rare Earth: Why Complex Life is Uncommon in the Universe.”
• Core Idea:
  • Microbial (simple) life may be common.
  • Complex, multicellular, intelligent life is exceptionally rare.
• Rationale: Complex life requires a long chain of interdependent, finely tuned planetary and astrophysical conditions.

What Makes Earth “Rare” ?

A combination of planetary, geological, and cosmic factors make Earth uniquely habitable.

Factor	Explanation	Why Critical
Location in Habitable Zone	Earth receives optimal solar radiation for liquid water.	Enables stable surface water & moderate temperature.
Stable Atmosphere	Balanced oxygen, CO₂, and nitrogen levels.	Supports respiration & temperature regulation.
Magnetic Field	Shields from solar radiation & cosmic rays.	Prevents atmospheric erosion.
Plate Tectonics	Regulates long-term carbon cycle.	Maintains climate stability over billions of years.
Presence of Moon	Stabilises Earth’s axial tilt.	Prevents extreme climate fluctuations.
Jupiter-like Giant Planet	Alters asteroid/comet trajectories.	Reduces catastrophic impacts (though debated).
Long-term Stellar Stability	Sun’s stable luminosity.	Prevents runaway greenhouse or freeze-out.

Recent Developments — What New Data Shows

(a) Exoplanet Discoveries (Kepler Mission)

• NASA’s Kepler Telescope (2009–2018) found that 20% of Sun-like stars might have Earth-sized planets in habitable zones.
• Conclusion: Earth-sized planets are not rare, weakening one part of the REH.

(b) JWST Findings (2023–2024)

• TRAPPIST-1b and 1c: No thick CO₂ atmosphere → Earth-sized ≠ Earth-like.
• Suggests many such planets lose atmospheres due to stellar radiation (especially around active M-dwarf stars).

(c) Planetary Atmospheres & Magnetic Fields

• M-dwarfs emit strong UV and particle radiation → strip atmospheres.
• Only planets with strong magnetic fields, moderate orbits, and volcanic replenishment may retain atmospheres.
• These combinations are rare, supporting the REH.

(d) Plate Tectonics & Climate Regulation

• Earth’s carbon-silicate cycle stabilises climate for billions of years.
• Some models suggest planets without tectonics can stabilise via volcanism-weathering balance, but less efficiently.
• Data inconclusive — Earth-like tectonic longevity may be rare.

(e) Role of Giant Planets

• Early belief: Jupiter protects Earth from impacts.
• Newer simulations: Jupiter can both deflect and direct comets inward.
• Conclusion: No universal rule — depends on system architecture.

(f) Search for Technosignatures

• Breakthrough Listen Project (2015–present): Surveyed thousands of stars for artificial radio signals → no detections yet.
• Suggests technologically advanced civilisations are very rare or non-detectable at our scale.

Scientific Debates

Aspect	Optimistic View	Rare Earth View
Planet Frequency	Many rocky planets in habitable zones (Kepler data).	True, but most are tidally locked or irradiated.
Atmosphere Retention	Some planets may keep air with magnetic shields.	Most lose air due to stellar radiation.
Plate Tectonics	May not be essential for life.	Likely crucial for long-term stability.
Jupiter Effect	Water delivery possible via giant planets.	System-specific; not generalisable.
Technosignatures	Silence may be due to detection limits.	Or civilisation rarity (Fermi paradox).

Key Implications

• Microbial life may be common, as basic organic chemistry occurs widely.
• Complex ecosystems (land-ocean, oxygen balance, stable climates) appear rare.
• Earth might be one of few planets with the precise combination of:
  • Long-term climate buffering,
  • Magnetic protection,
  • Atmospheric retention,
  • Tectonic activity, and
  • Evolutionary stability.

Future Directions

• Observational Advances:
  • JWST & ELTs (Extremely Large Telescopes): Detect atmospheric gases like CO₂, CH₄, O₂, H₂O.
  • LUVOIR & HabEx Missions: Target exo-Earths around Sun-like stars.
• Theoretical Advances:
  • Modelling exoplanet geology, magnetic fields, and long-term carbon cycles.

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Don’t use COP30 to change Paris deal ‘architecture’: India

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 Why in News ?

• At the 30th UN Climate Change Conference (COP30) in Belém, Brazil (Nov 2025), India reiterated that the global climate regime must stay anchored in “equity and common but differentiated responsibilities (CBDR)”.
• India cautioned against attempts to alter the Paris Agreement architecture (2015) during its 10th anniversary discussions.
• India, on behalf of LMDC (Like-Minded Developing Countries) and BASIC (Brazil, South Africa, India, China), emphasized adaptation, climate finance, and early net-zero commitments by developed countries.

Relevance:
GS 2 – International Relations
• India’s stance on Paris Agreement architecture and CBDR principle
• Role in Global South, BASIC, and LMDC groups
• Climate negotiations and geopolitical divide on climate finance
• COP30 (Belém, Brazil) – agenda, expectations, and equity debate

GS 3 – Environment
• Implementation of NDCs and long-term low-emission strategies
• Climate adaptation, mitigation, and finance mechanisms
• Role of domestic policies aligned with global commitments

Background — Climate Governance Architecture

• UNFCCC (1992) – Established the principle of CBDR-RC (Common But Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities).
  • All nations must act on climate, but responsibilities differ by historical emissions and capacities.
• Kyoto Protocol (1997): Binding emission targets only for developed nations.
• Paris Agreement (2015):
  • Voluntary Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) for all countries.
  • Aims: Limit warming to well below 2°C, pursue 1.5°C.
  • Introduced bottom-up approach, but reaffirmed CBDR.

India’s Key Points at COP30

(a) Defending the Paris “Architecture”

• India warned that revisiting or “reinterpreting” CBDR undermines trust and equity.
• Argued that developed nations must not shift the burden of mitigation onto developing countries under new terminologies like “net-zero alignment” or “global stocktake”.

(b) Focus on Adaptation

• India stressed adaptation as an equal pillar with mitigation — critical for the Global South facing:
  • Heatwaves, floods, droughts, coastal inundation.
  • Low adaptive capacity despite minimal per capita emissions.
• Called for submission of National Adaptation Plans (NAPs) aligned with national priorities.
• India’s own NAP and updated NDC (2035) are pending submission.

(c) Climate Finance Deficit

• Developed nations pledged only $300 billion/year by 2035, far below the $1.35 trillion demanded by developing countries.
• India highlighted:
  • Chronic failure of the $100 billion/year (by 2020) promise.
  • Need for predictable, new, and additional finance and technology transfer.
  • Urged reforms in multilateral development banks (MDBs) to deliver concessional finance.

(d) Net-Zero and Negative Emissions

• India (and BASIC bloc) urged developed countries to:
  • Achieve net-zero earlier than projected.
  • Invest more in negative emission technologies (carbon capture, direct air removal, afforestation).
• India’s own net-zero target: 2070, announced at COP26 (Glasgow, 2021).

(e) Unity Among Global South

• LMDC & BASIC represent ~50% of global population.
• They collectively resisted attempts to:
  • Dilute CBDR,
  • Overemphasize mitigation targets, and
  • Ignore adaptation and finance gaps.

Broader Context — Climate Politics 2024–25

• US withdrawal (Trump era) weakened Paris funding mechanisms.
• Finance pledge gap: Only $300 bn by 2035 vs demand for $1.35 trillion annually.
• COP28 (Dubai, 2023) – Global Stocktake exposed slow progress; developed nations missed targets.
• COP29 (Baku, 2024) – Disputes over the New Collective Quantified Goal (NCQG) on finance unresolved.
• Hence, COP30 becomes a make-or-break moment for rebuilding trust and revising commitments under equity.

Key Principles Reasserted by India

Principle	Description	India’s Stand
CBDR-RC	Nations share responsibility based on capability & historic emissions	Non-negotiable
Equity	Developed nations must lead, developing nations need space for growth	Must guide all climate actions
Climate Justice	Least emitters suffer most impacts	Requires finance + adaptation focus
Adaptation–Mitigation Balance	Both pillars essential	Adaptation must not be sidelined
Climate Finance Accountability	Fulfilling past pledges, not creating new excuses	Must be frontloaded & transparent

India’s Domestic Context

• NDCs (2015, updated 2022):
  • Reduce Emission Intensity of GDP by 45% by 2030 (from 2005).
  • Achieve 50% cumulative electric power capacity from non-fossil sources by 2030.
• Major Initiatives:
  • National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) – 8 missions.
  • LiFE Mission (Lifestyle for Environment, COP26 initiative).
  • National Hydrogen Mission, PM Surya Ghar Scheme, E-Mobility, Biofuel blending.
• Adaptation Efforts:
  • National Adaptation Fund for Climate Change (NAFCC).
  • State Action Plans on Climate Change (SAPCCs).

Challenges for India

• Balancing development needs vs emission reduction.
• Securing low-cost finance and technology access.
• Increasing climate resilience in agriculture, water, health, and coastal sectors.
• Meeting energy transition goals amid global geopolitical volatility and supply-chain issues.

Global Implications

• India’s position strengthens the Global South narrative — equity, justice, and adaptation.
• Exposes continued North–South divide in climate negotiations.
• Reinforces need for trust restoration through genuine financial and technological transfers.

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SC judge: imported ideas may not save endangered species

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Why in News ?

• Justice P.S. Narasimha of the Supreme Court remarked that several environmental law principles imported from the West, such as “inter-generational equity”, are anthropocentric (human-centered) and inadequate for protecting endangered species.
• The observation came during a hearing on a petition for conservation of the Great Indian Bustard (GIB) and Lesser Florican, both critically endangered bird species.

Relevance:
GS 3 – Environment & Biodiversity Conservation
• Ecocentrism vs anthropocentrism in wildlife protection
• Constitutional provisions – Articles 48A & 51A(g)
• Landmark judgments – T.N. Godavarman (2012), Animal Welfare Board (2014)
• Laws – Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 and Biodiversity Act, 2002
• Conservation of endangered species – Great Indian Bustard, Florican

GS 2 – Polity & Judiciary
• Judicial philosophy on environmental protection
• Role of Supreme Court in expanding environmental jurisprudence
• Integration of traditional Indian ecological ethics in legal reasoning

Case Context

• Petitioner: M.K. Ranjitsinh (noted wildlife conservationist).
• Concern: Rapid decline of Great Indian Bustard and Lesser Florican populations.
  • GIB: ~150 in wild, ~70 in captivity.
  • Lesser Florican: ~70 individuals.
• Issue: Captive breeding showing limited success; extinction risk imminent.
• Respondent: Union and State governments, on conservation failures.

Key Observation by Justice Narasimha

• Critique: Western-origin doctrines like inter-generational equity treat nature’s value through the lens of human utility — “Biblical roots” placing man atop creation.
• Argument: Such human-centered frameworks fail to protect non-human species whose value isn’t tied to human benefit.
• Emphasis: Courts and laws should adopt an ecocentric approach — valuing all life forms intrinsically, not just for human welfare.
• Reference: Supreme Court’s earlier Red Sanders (2011) case, where the Court acknowledged the “intrinsic worth of all species” over their instrumental value.

Conceptual Background

(a) Anthropocentrism

• Human-centered worldview; nature valued for its utility to humans.
• Example: Inter-generational equity → focuses on fair use of resources for present and future human generations.
• Critique: Ignores intrinsic rights of nature and species.

(b) Ecocentrism

• Nature-centered ethics; ecosystems and species possess intrinsic rights.
• Every species has a moral and legal right to exist, irrespective of human needs.
• Rooted in Indian ecological philosophy (e.g., Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam, Ahimsa, Pancha Mahabhutas).

Key Environmental Principles Discussed

Principle	Origin	Focus	Criticism/Observation
Inter-generational Equity	Western (Weiss, 1989)	Resource fairness across generations	Anthropocentric — prioritizes human needs
Sustainable Development	Brundtland Report (1987)	Development meeting human needs	Human welfare–oriented
Precautionary Principle	Western	Preventive approach to harm	Often framed around human safety
Ecocentric Approach	Indigenous & global ecological ethics	Rights of nature, intrinsic worth	Favoured by Indian jurisprudence (SC, 2012–23)

Evolution of Environmental Jurisprudence in India

Phase	Landmark Cases	Key Principle
1980s–90s: Anthropocentric	Rural Litigation and Entitlement Kendra (1985), Vellore Citizens (1996)	Sustainable development, inter-generational equity
2000s–2010s: Shift to Ecocentrism	T.N. Godavarman (2012), Animal Welfare Board v. A. Nagaraja (2014)	Rights of species, compassion for all life
2020s: Constitutional deepening	Great Indian Bustard case (2021–25)	Ecocentrism over anthropocentrism reaffirmed

Key Precedent Cases Referenced

• Red Sanders Case (2011):
  • Amicus Curiae urged focus on “intrinsic worth” of species.
  • SC accepted ecocentric argument — human interests not the only measure of environmental protection.
• T.N. Godavarman Thirumulpad v. Union of India (2012):
  • Recognized “ecocentric jurisprudence”; emphasized duty to protect all species.
• Animal Welfare Board v. A. Nagaraja (2014):
  • Declared animals have right to live with dignity; introduced “compassion for all living creatures” (Art. 51A(g)).
• Great Indian Bustard case (2021–present):
  • SC directed undergrounding of power lines in bustard habitats.
  • 2025 hearing focuses on broader moral and philosophical underpinnings of conservation law.

Constitutional and Legal Basis for Ecocentrism

• Article 48A: State to protect and improve the environment.
• Article 51A(g): Duty of every citizen to protect and show compassion for living creatures.
• Biological Diversity Act, 2002: Recognizes need to conserve species and ecosystems.
• Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972: Provides statutory protection for endangered species.
• Judicial Trend: Interprets constitutional duties as moral-ecological imperatives.

Broader Philosophical Debate

Approach	Focus	Legal Implication
Anthropocentric	Humans as central agents	Environmental protection only when human welfare is affected
Ecocentric	Nature as a self-existent entity	Extends rights and compassion to all life forms
Biocentric	Life-centric (every organism matters)	Balances between human and non-human life

Justice Narasimha’s critique reflects India’s shift from anthropocentrism → ecocentrism, aligning law with Indian civilizational ethos and biodiversity ethics.

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All Plastics Are Not the Same: Why Only Some Plastics Can Be Recycled

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Why in News ?

• The article explains why recycling works only for specific kinds of plastics, despite global focus on a circular economy and India’s Plastic Waste Management Rules (2016, amended 2022).
• The discussion gains relevance amid the global plastic treaty negotiations (INC-5) and India’s EPR (Extended Producer Responsibility) implementation drive.

Relevance:
GS 3 – Environment & Pollution Control
• Polymer science – thermoplastics vs thermosets and recyclability challenges
• Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016 & 2022 amendments
• Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) and circular economy
• Waste segregation, recycling technologies (mechanical & chemical)
• SDG linkages – Responsible Consumption (SDG 12), Climate Action (SDG 13)

GS 3 – Science & Technology (Material Science)
• Chemistry and structure of polymers determining reusability
• Innovation in biodegradable and bio-based plastics

What Are Plastics?

• Definition: Plastics are synthetic polymers — long chains of repeating monomer units — derived mainly from petroleum and natural gas.
• Composition:
  • Base polymer (e.g., polyethylene, polypropylene)
  • Additives (plasticizers, dyes, flame retardants, UV stabilizers, fillers)
• These additives and polymer linkages determine melting point, flexibility, transparency, and recyclability.

Classification of Plastics

Type	Bonding Nature	Behavior on Heating	Examples	Recyclability
Thermoplastics	Weak van der Waals forces	Soften when heated, harden on cooling	PET (bottles), HDPE (jugs), LDPE (films), PVC (pipes)	Easily recyclable
Thermosetting Plastics (Thermosets)	Strong covalent cross-links	Do not soften; decompose or crack	Epoxy resin, Bakelite, Melamine, Polyurethane	Non-recyclable by conventional methods

Polymer chemistry (GS-3 Science & Tech) and waste classification (GS-3 Environment).

Why Only Some Plastics Are Recyclable ?

(a) Molecular Structure

• Thermoplastics retain polymer chains even after melting → can be remolded repeatedly.
• Thermosets form irreversible cross-linked molecular networks → break on heating, not melt.

(b) Additives and Contaminants

• Food residue, colorants, and plasticizers alter flow and strength of molten plastic.
• Such impurities lower mechanical quality of recycled material → limit reusability.

(c) Composite & Multilayer Packaging

• Common in chips, sachets, tetra packs → made of PET + PE + aluminum foil layers.
• Difficult to separate; hence often non-recyclable, ending up in landfills or incineration.

(d) Economic Viability

• Recycling involves collection → segregation → washing → shredding → remolding.
• Cost-effective only when waste stream is homogeneous, large-scale, and clean (e.g., PET bottles).
• Mixed waste, foams, or films lack steady market demand for recycled pellets.

Chemical vs Mechanical Recycling

Method	Process	Pros	Cons
Mechanical Recycling	Plastics shredded, melted, and remolded	Simple, low energy	Limited to clean, single-type thermoplastics
Chemical Recycling	Polymers broken down into monomers or oils using heat/catalysts	Can handle mixed or dirty plastics	Energy-intensive, expensive, limited scalability

Example:

• Pyrolysis → breaks polymers to synthetic oil.
• Depolymerization → converts PET to monomers (ethylene glycol, terephthalic acid).

India’s Plastic Waste Landscape

• Annual Plastic Waste Generation (CPCB 2023): ~3.5 million tonnes.
• Recycling rate: ~60% (mostly informal sector, mechanical recycling).
• Rules:
  • Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016 (amended 2022) — Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR), ban on certain single-use plastics.
  • Swachh Bharat Mission & SBM 2.0: Urban local bodies mandated waste segregation and MRF (Material Recovery Facility) setup.
  • India’s commitment to circular economy — NITI Aayog 2022 roadmap.

Environmental Implications

• Non-recyclable plastics → landfill overflow, microplastic pollution, and toxic leachates.
• Burning mixed plastics → releases dioxins, furans, and GHGs (climate implications).
• Marine plastic → threatens biodiversity and enters food chain (bioaccumulation).
• India’s SDG link:
  • SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption & Production)
  • SDG 14 (Life Below Water)
  • SDG 13 (Climate Action)

Technological & Policy Way Forward

• Promote mono-material packaging → easier recycling.
• Invest in chemical recycling R&D and bio-based polymers (PLA, PHA).
• Strengthen EPR → enforce accountability on producers & FMCGs.
• Expand waste segregation infrastructure at municipal and panchayat levels.
• Create demand-side pull → government procurement of recycled plastic goods.
• Encourage informal sector integration → formalize waste-picker networks.

Topic	Integration
Pollution Control	Plastic waste → air, water, soil contamination
Environmental Governance	PWM Rules, EPR, CPCB guidelines
Science & Tech in Everyday Life	Polymer chemistry, thermoplastics vs thermosets
Sustainable Development	Circular economy, resource efficiency
Climate Change Link	Fossil fuel-based plastics → lifecycle GHG emissions

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India Must Safeguard its Baryte Reserves

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Why in News ?

• India, despite being the world’s largest exporter of barytes since 2018, holds only ~4% of global reserves (USGS data).
• Rapid depletion of the Mangampet deposit (Andhra Pradesh) — the source of over 95% of India’s baryte output — threatens energy and defence security.
• China, the US, and Russia have already imposed export curbs on barytes due to its strategic importance.

Relevance:
GS 3 – Economy & Energy Security
• Strategic minerals in oil drilling and defence industries
• Rapid depletion of Mangampet (Andhra Pradesh) baryte reserves
• Export-oriented mining vs strategic stockpiling
• Critical Minerals Strategy 2023 and national resource security
• Long-term energy and defence self-reliance

GS 2 – Governance & Policy
• Centre–State coordination in mineral resource governance (APMDC role)
• Export regulation and strategic mineral management
• Global practices – China, US, Russia export restrictions and lessons for India

 What is Baryte?

• Chemical Name: Barium Sulphate (BaSO₄).
• Nature: Dense, chemically inert, non-magnetic, non-radioactive mineral.
• Key Properties: High specific gravity (~4.5 g/cm³), insoluble in water, high X-ray opacity.
• India’s Deposits: Concentrated mainly at Mangampet (Kadapa district, Andhra Pradesh) — one of the largest baryte deposits globally.

Uses and Strategic Significance

Sector	Application	Relevance
Energy Sector	Mixed into drilling muds in oil & gas exploration to control pressure and prevent blowouts.	Critical for ONGC, OIL, and private upstream exploration.
Defence Industry	Used in high-density missile components, radar shielding, and counterweights.	No affordable substitute available.
Medical Sector	Barium sulfate used in X-ray imaging (barium meals).	Civilian use but also dual-purpose technology.
Paints, Plastics, and Electronics	Used as filler and radiation shield.	Industrial importance.

Strategic minerals, energy security, critical mineral policy, self-reliance in defence.

India’s Baryte Scenario (Data & Trends)

• Reserves: ~49 million tonnes (2015) → <23 million tonnes (2024) – a depletion rate of 2–3 million tonnes per year (Indian Minerals Yearbook 2021).
• Production: ~2.5–3 million tonnes/year (mostly Andhra Pradesh).
• Exports (2023): ~2.3 million tonnes – 3x China’s exports.
• Global Share: India ≈ 4% of global deposits but ≈ 40% of global exports.

Implication: Export-oriented policy is depleting reserves faster than domestic industrial demand growth.

Global Context: Baryte as a Critical Mineral

• China (since 2015): Export restrictions to conserve reserves for domestic industry.
• US, Russia, Iran: Similar curbs to maintain long-term energy independence.
• India: No export cap yet → vulnerability to future import dependence, especially when other suppliers tighten exports.

Strategic Parallel: Mirrors China’s rare earth dominance — control over resource = geopolitical leverage.

Policy Problem: Export-Driven Depletion

• Current policy encourages state-controlled export mining (APMDC model).
• Short-term revenue focus is undermining long-term strategic security.
• India risks transitioning from net exporter → future importer, just like with crude oil and lithium.

Economic Risk:

• Domestic shortage → costlier imports → energy sector cost escalation.
• Strategic risk in defence → dependence on uncertain foreign supplies.

Strategic & Environmental Implications

a) Energy Security

• Baryte indispensable for deep-sea and onshore drilling fluids.
• Without secure domestic supply, India’s oil exploration and strategic petroleum reserve operations could be affected.

b) Defence Security

• Used in missile guidance, ballast systems, radar shielding → critical to national security.
• Export-driven depletion risks import dependence in sensitive sectors.

c) Resource Sustainability

• Mining without restraint may exhaust reserves within 5–7 years.
• Environmental degradation due to open-pit mining in Mangampet region.

Comparative Policy Lessons

Country	Policy Approach	Lesson for India
China	Export restrictions; domestic priority; state stockpiles.	Resource nationalism as strategic tool.
US	Prefers to import barytes despite reserves; maintains domestic backup.	Long-term conservation strategy.
Russia/Iran	Controlled extraction for domestic oil & defence industries.	Align mineral policy with strategic sectors.

Way Forward: Strategic Resource Management

1. Impose calibrated export restrictions
   1. Prioritise domestic allocation for oil, gas, and defence sectors.
   1. Export only surplus after strategic stockpile threshold.
2. Create a Strategic Baryte Reserve
   1. On lines of Strategic Petroleum Reserve (SPR).
   1. Buffer for energy & defence contingencies.
3. National Critical Minerals Policy Integration
   1. Include barytes under India’s Critical Minerals List (2023), alongside lithium, cobalt, and rare earths.
4. Technology & Substitution R&D
   1. Encourage CSIR–NGRI, AMD, and DRDO to explore synthetic or alternative materials.
5. Sustainable Mining Practices
   1. Enforce stricter environmental clearances, mine closure plans, and waste recycling (BaSO₄ reprocessing).
6. Public–Private Partnerships in Processing
   1. Develop domestic beneficiation and value-addition capacity to reduce export of raw barytes.

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