Content
- Karur Stampede (Tamil Nadu)
- Kolkata Durga Puja 2025 – Culture Meets Commerce
- Ganga River Drying Faster Than in 1,300 Years
- Indian States’ Macro-Fiscal Health
- AstroSat – India’s First Space Observatory (10-Year Review)
- Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD)
- National Security Act (NSA)
Karur Stampede (Tamil Nadu)
Context
- Incident: Stampede at political rally of Tamilaga Vettri Kazhagam (TVK) president/actor Vijay at Velusamypuram, Karur, Tamil Nadu.
- Date & Time: Saturday, September 27, 2025; rally began 7:20 p.m.
- Casualties: 40 deaths (17 women, 14 men, 9 children), 111 injured (50 in GMCH, 61 in private hospitals).
- Trigger: Overcrowding caused by fans surging toward Vijay’s vehicle; climbing on trees/structures, compressive asphyxia.
- Immediate Response:
- Chief Minister M.K. Stalin visited victims and announced ₹10 lakh compensation for deceased families and ₹1 lakh for hospitalized.
- Justice Aruna Jagadeesan appointed to probe; visited site and GMCH.
- Post-mortems conducted on 39 victims; bodies handed over promptly.
- Crowd Characteristics: Mostly young attendees, waiting from morning; presence of women and children increased vulnerability.
Relevance:
- GS-2 (Polity & Governance): Role of state in public safety, police accountability, law & order, freedom of assembly (Art. 19(1)(b)) vs right to life (Art. 21).
- GS-3 (Disaster Management & Security): Man-made disasters, crowd management, NDMA guidelines, emergency response coordination.
Causes & Contributing Factors
- Planning & Organisational Failures:
- Underestimation of expected crowd size (~10,000 expected vs 27,000+ actual).
- Inadequate venue planning; congested roads instead of open grounds.
- Delay in Vijay’s arrival (scheduled noon, arrived 7 p.m.) caused prolonged waiting.
- Security & Crowd Management Gaps:
- Insufficient police presence and coordination.
- Lack of crowd flow regulation; multiple bottlenecks at key points.
- Absence of real-time monitoring and emergency evacuation plans.
- Cultural & Political Factors:
- Star power of actor-politicians in Tamil Nadu drives fan-mass mobilization.
- Fan enthusiasm leads to extreme behaviors (climbing vehicles, skipping lunch, skipping hydration).
- Human & Physiological Dynamics:
- Compressive asphyxia primary cause of death; trampling as secondary.
- Dense crowd amplifies emotional contagion; non-verbal cues affect crowd behavior.
Pattern in India & Globally
- India:
- Stampedes common at religious gatherings, political rallies, sporting events, and railway stations.
- Examples in 2025 alone:
- Prayagraj Kumbh Mela: 37–79 deaths.
- Bengaluru IPL victory parade: 11 deaths.
- New Delhi railway station (Feb 2025): 18 deaths.
- NCRB (2000–2022): 3,074 deaths in stampedes; ~4,000 events recorded since 1996.
- Global:
- 2010 Love Parade, Germany: massive stampede.
- 2022 Halloween, South Korea: crowd crush incident.
- Difference: Many countries implement stricter post-event corrective measures; India sees repeated high-casualty events.
Governance & Institutional Dimensions
- Polity & Governance Issues:
- Failure to enforce permissions and restrict congested zones.
- Police influenced by political pressure; independent enforcement limited.
- High Court recommendations (deposits for party events) historically under-implemented.
- Disaster Management:
- NDMA guidelines on crowd management exist but weakly enforced.
- Lack of codified, nationwide risk-assessment mechanism for mass gatherings.
- Medical & Emergency Response:
- Coordination among GMCH, private hospitals, ambulances critical but delayed due to crowd size.
Ethical & Social Considerations
- Leader Responsibility: Political leaders must balance fan engagement with public safety.
- Citizen Responsibility: Awareness of personal risk crucial; informed decision-making encouraged.
- Cultural Influence: Personality cults and fan-based politics intensify risk, requiring ethical mitigation.
Way Forward
- Structural & Planning:
- Mandatory crowd risk assessment before approvals.
- Digital registration & controlled entry; limit maximum attendees.
- Multi-stakeholder emergency coordination: police, health services, municipal authorities.
- Technological Interventions:
- Drones, CCTV, real-time crowd density mapping.
- SMS/online streaming to reduce physical rush.
- Legal / Regulatory:
- Make organisers legally liable for negligence; link permissions to adherence to safety norms.
- Cultural & Political:
- Shift focus from personality-based rallies to issue-based campaigning.
- Leaders to actively discourage unsafe behaviors (climbing, pushing, waiting under extreme conditions).
Culture meets commerce at Kolkata’s Durga Puja
Cultural Significance
- Festival: Celebrates Goddess Durga’s victory over Mahishasura; deeply rooted in Bengali tradition.
- Evolution: Transformed from neighborhood celebrations to city-wide cultural tourism, reflecting urban cultural consolidation.
- Cultural Messaging: Festival incorporates social issues, contemporary politics, and identity narratives, e.g., Bengali Asmita, Operation Sindoor, awareness on food crises and social justice.
- Creative Economy: Artisans, designers, and performers contribute to heritage preservation and cultural expression, blending tradition with modern social commentary.
Relevance:
- GS-1 (Indian Culture): Heritage, festivals, community identity, cultural tourism.
- GS-2 (Polity & Governance): Public-private partnerships, state support, urban governance.
- GS-3 (Economy & Infrastructure): Creative economy, employment generation, disaster preparedness, urban infrastructure.
Economic Dimensions
- Scale & Funding:
- 45,000 committees in West Bengal (2025); state grants increased from 10,000 (2018) → ₹1.10 lakh (2025).₹
- Contribution of festival-linked industries: ₹32,377 crore (2019 survey) – ~2.58% of WB GDP.
- Employment & Livelihoods:
- Direct employment: laborers ₹800–1,000/day; contractors’ incomes +50% over 10 years.
- Artists earn ₹2–3 lakh per project; top earnings up to ₹55 lakh.
- Boosts multiple sectors: food, retail, lighting, literature, creative services, transportation.
- Commercialisation: Corporate sponsorships and digital promotion have shifted financing from residents to brands leveraging urban consumption patterns.
- Resilience to Shocks: Torrential rainfall (Sept 22–23, 2025, 252 mm) temporarily disrupted activities but economic momentum restored quickly, showing adaptive capacity of stakeholders.
Governance & Policy Dimensions
- State Support:
- Grants to committees enhance cultural infrastructure, livelihoods, and tourism.
- Festival considered a public good with multiplier effects on urban economy.
- Urban Management:
- Need for crowd control, safety, and disaster preparedness during mega-events.
- Interaction of politics with cultural celebrations requires balancing public funds, security, and political messaging.
- Public-Private Partnerships: Sponsorship from FMCG, fintech, and other brands shows how private sector engagement complements cultural governance.
Social & Political Significance
- Community & Identity: Festival reinforces Bengali cultural identity and engages citizens in shared cultural expression.
- Political Messaging: Integration of social issues (acid-attack victims, food crisis, Bengal Renaissance) into festival themes serves as soft political engagement.
- Tourism & Urban Impact: Large-scale participation promotes domestic and international tourism, benefiting hospitality, retail, transport, and media sectors.
Environmental & Urban Challenges
- Weather Vulnerability: Extreme rainfall demonstrated urban flooding risks; highlights importance of drainage, rapid response mechanisms, and disaster-resilient urban planning.
- Crowd Management: Dense urban gatherings require safety protocols and infrastructure to prevent casualties and logistical disruption.
- Sustainable Practices: Need for eco-friendly materials, waste management, and energy-efficient lighting, given environmental footprint of large-scale festivals.
Conclusion
- Durga Puja illustrates cultural economy convergence, linking faith, creativity, politics, and commerce.
- Provides lessons for urban governance, public-private collaboration, disaster management, and cultural tourism promotion.
- Represents a case study for employment generation, creative economy, and socio-political messaging in Indian cities.
Study finds the Ganga river is drying faster than in 1,300 years
Context
- River Significance: Ganga sustains >600 million people across northern and eastern India; central to agriculture, economy, and cultural life.
- Origin: Gangotri Glacier, Uttarakhand
- Length: ~2,525 km
- Basin Area: ~1,08,000 sq km in India; total basin ~1,08,000–1,20,000 sq km
- States Covered: Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal; flows into Bangladesh
- Major Tributaries: Yamuna, Ghaghara, Gandak, Kosi, Son
- Current Concern: Recent studies indicate that post-1990s, the Ganga has entered a prolonged and severe drought phase, the most intense in 1,300 years.
- Historical Benchmark: Compared with the 14th and 16th century droughts, recent drying events are 76% more intense, highlighting unprecedented stress.
- Geographical Impact: Entire basin affected, with serious implications for Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, and downstream ecosystems.
Relevance:
- GS-1 (Geography): Rivers, climate patterns, hydrology.
- GS-2 (Governance): Policy planning, inter-state water governance, adaptive resource management.
- GS-3 (Environment & Disaster Management): Drought, water resources, climate change, agriculture, sustainable development.
Research Methodology
- Data Sources:
- Tree-ring reconstructions (Monsoon Asia Drought Atlas) extending 700 AD → present.
- Hydrological models and streamflow records validated against historical famines and local drought archives.
- Analysis:
- Comparison of long-term natural variability vs. recent drying.
- Statistical attribution to monsoon weakening, human activities, and climate drivers.
- Outcome: Current models fail to fully capture observed drying trends, challenging their reliability for future planning.
Key Drivers of Drying
- Climatic Factors:
- Weaker summer monsoons linked to rapid Indian Ocean warming.
- Broader climate shifts affecting precipitation and river recharge.
- Anthropogenic Factors:
- Groundwater over-extraction reducing baseflow.
- Land-use changes, deforestation, and urbanization altering hydrology.
- Aerosol pollution impacting local rainfall patterns.
Socio-Economic Implications
- Population Vulnerability: ~600 million people directly depend on Ganga for drinking water, irrigation, and industry.
- Agriculture & Economy:
- Reduced river flow threatens crop yields, food security, and livelihoods in the Indo-Gangetic plain.
- Intensifies water conflicts between states and urban-rural sectors.
- Cultural & Religious Impacts: Ganga is central to rituals and festivals; reduced flow affects ritual purity, tourism, and heritage sites.
Policy & Governance Dimensions
- Adaptive Water Management:
- Planning must account for natural variability + human-driven stressors, not just model projections.
- Focus on groundwater regulation, river rejuvenation, and watershed management.
- Limitations of Climate Models:
- Current global models overestimate wetting trends, underestimating recent drought intensity.
- Indicates need for localized climate modeling and scenario-based planning.
- Inter-State Coordination:
- Drought resilience requires coordinated policy for water allocation, dam operations, and irrigation scheduling.
- Disaster Preparedness:
- Integrate drought early warning systems, crop insurance, and community-level interventions.
Implications
- Millennial Perspective: Post-1990s drought exceeds any arid spell in last 1,300 years → urgency for long-term river basin planning.
- Hydrological Evidence: Multiple 4–7 year drought sequences occurred recently, previously rare in historical records.
- Global Climate Implication: Raises questions on global climate model reliability, especially in simulating regional hydro-climatic extremes.
- Urban-Rural Interface: Rapid urbanization + industrialization in the Ganga basin exacerbates drying effects.
Conclusion
- Ganga is undergoing unprecedented drying, challenging both historical assumptions and model projections.
- Integrated human-climate management is crucial for sustainability.
- Highlights the need for localized climate monitoring, river rejuvenation, and inter-sectoral coordination.
- Serves as a case study for climate adaptation, water governance, and long-term disaster planning in India.
Analysing Indian States’ macro-fiscal health
Context
- Economic Trajectory:
- 2010s: Many States prospered through reforms, improved tax collection, and booming growth, some reporting revenue surpluses.
- Pandemic Impact: Shrinking tax revenues and soaring emergency expenditures pushed almost all States back into fiscal stress.
- Significance: States control budgets larger than many countries, spending more than the Union government on health, welfare, and infrastructure, highlighting the importance of fiscal prudence.
Relevance:
- GS-2 (Governance): Fiscal federalism, intergovernmental transfers, state accountability.
- GS-3 (Economy & Public Finance): Revenue generation, borrowing, debt management, welfare spending, fiscal prudence.
Revenue Generation & Vertical Imbalance
- Internal Revenue Dependence:
- Maharashtra: 70% of receipts generated internally (2022–23).
- Arunachal Pradesh: Only 9% internally, relying on Union transfers.
- Uttar Pradesh: 42% internally, despite reporting a ₹37,000 crore surplus.
- Sources of Volatile Revenue:
- Kerala: Lottery industry – ₹12,000 crore.
- Odisha: 90% of non-tax revenue from mining royalties.
- Telangana: Land sales – ₹9,800 crore.
- Issue: Overreliance on volatile and one-time revenue sources masks true fiscal stability.
Borrowing & Debt Patterns
- Borrowing Trends (2016–17 → 2022–23):
- Rajasthan: ₹43,889 crore → ₹1,60,565 crore (debt ~40% GSDP).
- Tamil Nadu: ₹66,143 crore → ₹1,01,062 crore (~33% GSDP).
- Telangana: ₹44,819 crore → ₹1,26,884 crore (~28% GSDP).
- Uttar Pradesh: ₹67,685 crore → ₹66,847 crore (~31% GSDP, slightly reduced).
- Tripura & Uttarakhand: Borrowings low but debt >30% GSDP.
- Pandemic Spike: Borrowings increased universally during COVID; post-pandemic strategies diverged:
- Increase: Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Telangana.
- Reduce/Cut: Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra.
- Maintain/Moderate: Odisha, UP, Tripura.
The Welfare Paradox
- Surplus ≠ Development:
- Many States with reported surpluses rely heavily on central transfers, off-budget loans, and delayed GST compensation.
- Surpluses may be accounting gains, not necessarily developmental gains.
- Deferred Costs & Fiscal Stress:
- UP & Andhra Pradesh: Free power and farm waivers financed via special purpose vehicles and guarantees.
- Punjab: Chronic debt issues.
- Kerala: Dependency on volatile lottery revenues.
- Fiscal Illusion: Corporate tax cuts, GST cesses, and rebranded social spending mask the true burden on State finances.
Policy & Governance Implications
- Need for Fiscal Prudence:
- Prioritise capital expenditure for growth while keeping routine costs in check.
- Adaptive Revenue Planning:
- Reduce dependence on volatile sources like land sales, lotteries, and mining royalties.
- Welfare-State Management:
- Balance social spending with fiscal sustainability; ensure direct developmental outcomes rather than politically symbolic transfers.
- Vertical Fiscal Imbalance:
- Poorer States reliant on Union transfers; rich States maintain autonomy.
- Calls for reform in GST compensation mechanisms and intergovernmental fiscal transfers.
Astrosat, India’s first space observatory, completes a decade among the stars
Context
- Launch & Timeline:
- Launched on 28 September 2015 via PSLV-C30 (XL) from Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota.
- Original designed mission life: 5 years; currently operational for 10 years, providing continuous data.
- Significance:
- First dedicated multi-wavelength space astronomy observatory in India.
- Enables simultaneous observation across the electromagnetic spectrum from ultraviolet (UV) to high-energy X-rays.
Relevance:
- GS-3 (Science & Technology / Space): Space-based multi-wavelength astronomy, ISRO innovation, observatory management.
Technical Specifications & Payloads
- Five Scientific Payloads:
- Ultra Violet Imaging Telescope (UVIT): Observes far-UV and near-UV photons; used to study star formation and galaxies.
- Large Area X-ray Proportional Counter (LAXPC): Observes X-ray binaries, neutron stars, and black holes.
- Cadmium-Zinc-Telluride Imager (CZTI): Detects hard X-rays; studies black holes and gamma-ray bursts.
- Soft X-ray Telescope (SXT): Sensitive to low-energy X-rays; maps galaxy clusters and supernova remnants.
- Scanning Sky Monitor (SSM): Monitors transient X-ray sources; enables detection of nova and black hole outbursts.
- Capability: Enables multi-wavelength studies, critical for understanding cosmic phenomena like black holes, neutron stars, and distant galaxies.
Collaborative & Institutional Framework
- Indian Institutions:
- ISRO (lead), Inter-University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics (IUCAA), Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR), Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA), Raman Research Institute (RRI).
- International Collaboration:
- Participating institutions from Canada and the U.K. contributed to payload development and data analysis.
- Significance: Demonstrates India’s capability for collaborative high-end space science research.
Key Scientific Contributions
- Black Holes & Neutron Stars:
- Study of X-ray binaries and accretion phenomena.
- Distant Galaxies:
- First-time detection of far-UV photons from galaxies 9.3 billion light-years away, contributing to cosmic evolution studies.
- Transient Phenomena:
- Identification of novae, gamma-ray bursts, and X-ray outbursts.
- Groundbreaking Multi-wavelength Observations:
- Enabled simultaneous UV and X-ray data, allowing better modeling of high-energy astrophysical sources.
Operational & Policy Insights
- Extended Mission Life:
- Designed for 5 years; continued operation reflects robust engineering, on-orbit maintenance, and payload longevity.
- Science Diplomacy & Collaboration:
- International partnerships enhance India’s soft power in global astronomy.
- Capacity Building:
- Involvement of multiple universities and research institutions has strengthened national space science ecosystem.
- Data Accessibility:
- Data is made available to Indian and international researchers, promoting open science and research collaborations.
Implications
- AstroSat’s decade-long operation shows India’s leap from space applications to fundamental science.
- Acts as a foundation for future observatories, e.g., LUVOIR-class or X-ray missions.
- Highlights multi-stakeholder governance in Indian space science: ISRO, universities, research institutes, international collaborators.
- Represents a model for cost-effective, indigenous, and multi-wavelength space research, strengthening India’s position in global astrophysics.
Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD)
Definition & Pathophysiology
- NAFLD: Accumulation of fat in the liver in individuals who do not consume significant alcohol.
- Mechanism: Dysregulation of liver metabolism leading to:
- Elevated liver enzymes: SGOT (AST) 10–40 U/L; SGPT (ALT) 7–56 U/L.
- Impaired insulin signaling, often linked with diabetes and obesity.
- Can progress to non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) and cirrhosis if untreated.
Relevance:
- GS-2 (Health & Nutrition): Lifestyle diseases, public health, preventive healthcare.
- GS-3 (Science & Technology / Health Infrastructure): NCD management, metabolic disorders, urban health challenges.
Risk Factors
- Metabolic conditions: Diabetes, obesity, insulin resistance.
- Lifestyle factors: Sedentary behaviour, irregular meals, high-calorie diet, lack of exercise.
- Age & gender: Increasingly reported in young adults (20–40 years), both men and women.
- Comorbidities: Pancreatic disorders, thyroid dysfunction, and dyslipidemia.
Epidemiology & Prevalence in India
- Estimated prevalence of NAFLD: 9–32% of the population.
- Progression to cirrhosis: ~1% in early-stage NAFLD; 1–25% in advanced NASH.
- State-wise prevalence (highest to lowest):
- Uttar Pradesh: 39.5%
- Haryana: 30.8%
- Karnataka: 25.8%
- Rising prevalence linked with urbanization, sedentary lifestyle, obesity, and diabetes epidemic.
Clinical Presentation
- Often asymptomatic initially, detected via routine liver function tests.
- Symptoms when present: Fatigue, abdominal discomfort, malaise.
- Laboratory findings:
- Elevated SGOT/SGPT levels (50–70 U/L observed in case study).
- HbA1c levels often >13% in uncontrolled diabetes cases.
Association with Diabetes
- Type 1 Diabetes (T1D): Autoimmune destruction of insulin-producing beta cells → insulin therapy required.
- Type 2 Diabetes (T2D): Insulin resistance; high circulating insulin levels contribute to fat deposition in the liver.
- NAFLD can precede diabetes diagnosis or worsen glycemic control.
Obesity & Sedentary Lifestyle
- Physical inactivity is a major contributor: Sitting for long periods, inability to exercise due to injury, occupational inactivity.
- Case examples:
- Sedentary work + knee injury → Grade 3 obesity → fatty liver.
- Moderate overweight + poor diet → gradual fat accumulation in the liver.
- Weight management and exercise are cornerstones of prevention and reversal.
Diagnosis & Management
- Diagnosis:
- Elevated liver enzymes (SGOT/SGPT)
- Imaging: Ultrasound, CT scan, or MRI for fat quantification
- Exclusion of alcohol-induced liver disease
- Management:
- Address underlying causes: diabetes control, weight reduction, lipid management.
- Lifestyle interventions: Low-carb diet, regular physical activity.
- Medications as needed for insulin regulation or metabolic syndrome.
- Prognosis: Reversible in early stages if underlying risk factors are controlled.
Public Health & Policy Implications
- NAFLD is increasingly a lifestyle disease affecting urban and middle-aged populations.
- Preventive measures:
- Promote healthy diet and physical activity in schools, workplaces, and urban planning.
- Screen high-risk populations: Obese, diabetics, and sedentary individuals.
- Healthcare system impact:
- Early detection prevents progression to cirrhosis and liver failure, reducing long-term healthcare costs.
- Awareness campaigns:
- Include NAFLD under NCD (Non-Communicable Disease) prevention programs.
- Encourage regular liver function testing, especially in diabetic and obese patients.
Conclusion
- NAFLD exemplifies intersection of lifestyle, metabolic disease, and public health.
- Highlights urban lifestyle challenges in India: Sedentary work, high-calorie diet, obesity epidemic.
- Emphasizes need for integrated healthcare approach: Screening, lifestyle modification, and chronic disease management.
National Security Act (NSA)
Why NSA is in News Recently
- Current context:
- Recent detentions of individuals in Jammu & Kashmir, UP, and other states linked to protests or “security threats.”
- Cases involving public figures or activists spark debates on civil liberties and misuse.
- Courts and media scrutinise whether detentions under NSA meet constitutional and legal safeguards.
- Links to Articles 14, 19, 22, preventive detention jurisprudence, and internal security governance.
Relevance:
- GS-2 (Polity & Governance): Preventive detention, civil liberties, internal security, constitutional safeguards (Arts. 14, 19, 21, 22).
- GS-3 (Internal Security): Law & order, state powers, public safety, security infrastructure.
Historical Context and Genesis
- Colonial origins: Preventive detention in India dates to British rule, used to suppress dissent during wars and political unrest.
- Post-Independence legislation:
- Preventive Detention Act, 1950: First post-Independence preventive detention law.
- Maintenance of Internal Security Act (MISA), 1971: Widely misused during Emergency (1975–77).
- MISA repeal & NSA enactment: MISA repealed in 1978; NSA enacted in 1980 (formally operational in 1988) with procedural safeguards.
- Intent: Enable government to detain individuals preventively to maintain internal security, public order, and essential supplies.
Scope and Powers under NSA
- Authorities empowered:
- Central & State governments.
- District Magistrates & Police Commissioners (when authorised).
- Preventive vs. punitive:
- Preventive detention stops potential threats before they materialize.
- No formal trial or charges needed at detention.
- Grounds for detention:
- Prejudicial to defence of India.
- Affecting relations with foreign powers.
- Threat to public order or essential supplies.
Procedural Safeguards
- Communication: Grounds communicated within 5 days, extendable to 15 days.
- Representation: Detainee can submit representation to the government.
- Advisory Board:
- Composed of High Court judges.
- Reviews cases within 3 weeks.
- Can order release if “no sufficient cause” found.
- Duration: Maximum 12 months, subject to earlier revocation.
Limitations
- No legal representation before the Advisory Board.
- Government can withhold facts citing “public interest.”
- Leaves wide discretion, raising civil liberty concerns.
Legal Remedies
- Representation to government.
- Advisory Board review within 3 weeks.
- Judicial recourse:
- High Court (Article 226), Supreme Court (Article 32) for legality of detention.
- Revocation: Government can release detainee if threat deemed unnecessary.
Key Cases & Usage
- Recent high-profile detentions:
- 2023: Amritpal Singh (Sikh preacher) – Assam detention.
- 2017–18: Chandrashekhar Azad “Ravan” – Uttar Pradesh, Supreme Court intervened.
- 2020: Anti-CAA protesters in Uttar Pradesh.
- Other uses:
- Love jihad, cow slaughter, communal violence.
- Black-marketing kerosene (2012 – Supreme Court struck down).
Controversies
- Broad, vague definitions allow misuse.
- Civil liberties concerns: detention without trial or open evidence.
- Judicial scrutiny shows government discretion often unchecked.
- Debate:
- Proponents: Necessary for national security & public order.
- Critics: Blunt instrument that may target dissent.
