Legacy IAS
UPSC Civil Services Coaching • Bangalore
Foreign Travellers Who Visited India
A Comprehensive UPSC Guide — Prelims, GS-I Mains & Interview
1. Introduction & UPSC Relevance
Accounts left by foreign travellers form one of the most vital categories of literary sources for reconstructing Indian history. Where indigenous texts often focus on religious or literary themes, traveller narratives offer first-hand, comparative perspectives on administration, economy, society, and culture.
Why This Topic Matters for UPSC
- Prelims: Direct factual questions on traveller–book–dynasty matching appear frequently.
- GS-I Mains: Questions on “sources of Indian history” or specific dynasties require traveller testimony.
- Interview: Analytical questions on the reliability and bias of historical sources.
UPSC Trend Alert
Questions on foreign travellers have appeared in Prelims in 2013, 2016, 2019, and 2022 — mostly as match-the-following or statement-based MCQs.
How Traveller Accounts Help Reconstruct Indian History
- Corroborative evidence: They verify or challenge claims made in inscriptions and court literature.
- Socio-economic detail: They describe markets, prices, taxes, and daily life — details rarely found in official records.
- Comparative lens: Foreign observers highlight what was unique about India by comparing it with their home societies.
- Chronological markers: Their dated visits help fix timelines for Indian rulers and events.
🧠 Conceptual Mind-Map: What Travellers Tell Us
Foreign Traveller Accounts
Administration
Mauryan spy system, Mughal revenue, Sultanate justice
Economy & Trade
Ports, currencies, commodities, guilds
Society & Caste
Varna, untouchability, women’s status, festivals
Religion & Culture
Buddhist monasteries, Hindu temples, Sufi shrines
Cities & Architecture
Pataliputra, Vijayanagara, Delhi, Agra
2. Classification of Foreign Travellers
Foreign travellers to India can be classified into three broad chronological categories. Each period brought visitors with distinct motivations — from Greek diplomatic curiosity to Chinese Buddhist pilgrimage to European mercantile interest.
🔄 Chronological Timeline Flowchart
Ancient Period
4th c. BCE – 7th c. CE
➔
Medieval Period
8th c. – 15th c. CE
➔
Early Modern / Colonial
15th c. – 18th c. CE
A. Ancient Period
- Greek & Roman travellers: Megasthenes, Deimachus, Ptolemy
- Chinese Buddhist pilgrims: Fa-Hien, Hiuen Tsang, I-Tsing
- Motivation: Diplomatic missions, religious pilgrimage, scholarly study
B. Medieval Period
- Arab & Persian scholars: Al-Masudi, Al-Beruni, Al-Idrisi, Ibn Battuta
- European travellers: Marco Polo
- Motivation: Trade, intellectual curiosity, Sufi scholarship, exploration
C. Early Modern / Colonial Period
- European merchants & scholars: Nicolo Conti, Domingo Paes, Duarte Barbosa, Bernier, Tavernier
- Motivation: Trade expansion, diplomatic reporting, gem trade, socio-political documentation
3. Ancient Foreign Travellers to India (Detailed)
Megasthenes
Ancient • Greek
- Country
- Greece (Seleucid Empire)
- Period
- c. 302–298 BCE
- Ruler Visited
- Chandragupta Maurya
- Major Work
- Indica
- Role
- Ambassador of Seleucus Nicator at Mauryan court
Key Observations
- Described Pataliputra as one of the greatest cities in the ancient world.
- Divided Indian society into seven classes (philosophers, farmers, soldiers, herdsmen, artisans, magistrates, councillors).
- Noted the Mauryan administration: a well-organised bureaucracy, espionage system, and city governance.
- Claimed there was no slavery in India (debated by historians).
- Described Indian agriculture, irrigation, and the importance of the Ganges river system.
Fa-Hien (Faxian)
Ancient • Chinese
- Country
- China
- Period
- c. 399–414 CE
- Ruler/Period
- Chandragupta II (Gupta dynasty)
- Major Work
- A Record of Buddhist Kingdoms (Fo-Kuo-Ki)
- Purpose
- Buddhist pilgrimage; collect sacred texts
Key Observations
- Found Madhyadesha (Middle Country) peaceful and prosperous; people were happy and free.
- Observed that capital punishment was rare; most offences were punished by fines.
- Described the decline of Buddhism in some areas but its flourishing in others (e.g., Mathura).
- Noted that Vaishyas and Shudras were treated differently — Chandalas had to signal their arrival.
- Praised the Gupta-era roads, rest houses, and charitable hospitals.
Hiuen Tsang (Xuanzang)
Ancient • Chinese
- Country
- China (Tang dynasty)
- Period
- c. 630–645 CE
- Ruler Visited
- Harshavardhana & Pulakeshin II
- Major Work
- Si-Yu-Ki (Records of the Western World)
- Nickname
- “Prince of Pilgrims”
Key Observations
- Most detailed account of post-Gupta India; visited over 100 kingdoms.
- Described Nalanda University in great detail — 10,000 students, rigorous admissions, vast library.
- Noted Harsha’s generous donations at the Kanauj Assembly and the Prayag Assembly.
- Described the caste system, untouchability, and prevalence of Buddhism and Hinduism side by side.
- Reported a decline in Buddhism in many regions and the growing dominance of Hinduism.
- Gave vivid descriptions of Indian cities, agriculture, and the judicial system.
I-Tsing (Yijing)
Ancient • Chinese
- Country
- China (Tang dynasty)
- Period
- c. 671–695 CE
- Place Visited
- Nalanda, Sumatra (Srivijaya)
- Major Work
- A Record of the Buddhist Religion as Practised in India and the Malay Archipelago
Key Observations
- Provided a detailed account of Nalanda University after Hiuen Tsang.
- Described Buddhist monastic rules, rituals, and the daily life of monks in India.
- Noted the importance of Srivijaya (Sumatra) as a centre of Buddhist learning.
- Observed that Indian medicine (especially Ayurveda) was highly advanced.
Comparison Table — Ancient Foreign Travellers
| Traveller | Period | Dynasty/Ruler | Key Observations | Major Work |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Megasthenes | c. 302–298 BCE | Chandragupta Maurya | Seven-fold caste division, Pataliputra, Mauryan admin | Indica |
| Fa-Hien | c. 399–414 CE | Chandragupta II (Gupta) | Peaceful society, mild punishments, Buddhist pilgrim sites | Fo-Kuo-Ki |
| Hiuen Tsang | c. 630–645 CE | Harshavardhana | Nalanda, caste, Harsha’s assemblies, 100+ kingdoms | Si-Yu-Ki |
| I-Tsing | c. 671–695 CE | Post-Harsha period | Nalanda monastic life, Buddhist rituals, medicine | Record of Buddhist Religion |
Memory Tip
Fa-Hien visited during the Flourishing Gupta age. Hiuen Tsang visited Harsha. Use the matching initials to remember.
4. Medieval Foreign Travellers (Core Section)
A. Arab & Persian Travellers
Al-Masudi
Medieval • Arab
- Country
- Baghdad (Abbasid Caliphate)
- Period
- c. 915–957 CE
- Region Visited
- Western India (Gujarat, Sindh)
- Major Work
- Muruj-ul-Zahab (Meadows of Gold)
Key Observations
- Described the Pratihara rulers and the Rashtrakutas.
- Provided information about Indian Ocean trade, especially the ports of Gujarat.
- Noted Hindu religious practices and temples.
- Called India the “land of wisdom” (Hind).
Al-Beruni (Abu Rayhan Biruni)
Medieval • Persian/Central Asian
- Country
- Khwarezm (modern Uzbekistan)
- Period
- c. 1017–1030 CE
- Context
- Came with Mahmud of Ghazni’s campaigns
- Major Work
- Tahqiq-i-Hind (Kitab-ul-Hind)
Key Observations
- Learned Sanskrit and studied Indian texts directly — one of the most scholarly and objective foreign accounts.
- Described the caste system, Hindu philosophy (Samkhya, Patanjali), astronomy, and mathematics.
- Noted Indian concepts of time cycles (yugas), geography, and weights and measures.
- Criticised Indians for being “insular” and reluctant to engage with foreign ideas.
- His work is considered a pioneering comparative study of civilisations.
UPSC Favourite
Al-Beruni’s Kitab-ul-Hind is frequently tested. Remember: he is praised for his objectivity and scholarly method — he learned Sanskrit and directly studied Indian sciences.
Ibn Battuta
Medieval • Moroccan
- Country
- Morocco (Tangier)
- Period
- c. 1333–1347 CE
- Ruler Visited
- Muhammad bin Tughlaq (Delhi Sultanate)
- Major Work
- Rihla (The Travels)
- Role in India
- Appointed Qazi of Delhi by the Sultan
Key Observations
- Vivid account of Muhammad bin Tughlaq — described him as both generous and cruel.
- Described the postal system (Barid) of the Sultanate — horse-post and foot-post.
- Noted the sati practice, Indian agriculture, and the coconut palm economy of Malabar.
- Described cities: Delhi, Daulatabad, Calicut, and the Malabar coast trade.
- Gave detailed accounts of trade with China and Southeast Asia.
- Noted the practice of slavery and the extravagant lifestyle of the Sultan’s court.
Al-Idrisi
Medieval • Arab/Sicilian
- Country
- Morocco / Sicily
- Period
- 12th century CE (c. 1154)
- Major Work
- Nuzhat al-Mushtaq (Tabula Rogeriana)
- Nature
- Geographer — did not personally visit India
Key Observations
- Created one of the most advanced world maps of the medieval period.
- Described Indian ports, trade routes, and commodities.
- His geographical information was based on earlier Arab traders and scholars.
B. European & Other Travellers
Marco Polo
Medieval • Venetian
- Country
- Venice (Italy)
- Period
- c. 1292–1294 CE
- Region Visited
- South India (Malabar, Coromandel coast), Sri Lanka
- Major Work
- The Travels of Marco Polo (Il Milione)
Key Observations
- Described the Pandya kingdom in South India and the flourishing pepper and spice trade.
- Noted the wealth of Indian ports, especially on the Malabar coast.
- Described sati, caste system, and religious practices of Hindus and Buddhists.
- Mentioned the diamond mines of Golconda region.
- His accounts fuelled European interest in finding a sea route to India.
Comparison Table — Medieval Foreign Travellers
| Traveller | Origin | Period | Dynasty/Region | Focus Area | Major Work |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Al-Masudi | Arab | 10th c. | Pratiharas, Rashtrakutas | Trade, religion | Muruj-ul-Zahab |
| Al-Beruni | Central Asian | 11th c. | Ghaznavid-era India | Philosophy, science, caste | Kitab-ul-Hind |
| Ibn Battuta | Moroccan | 14th c. | Muhammad bin Tughlaq | Administration, society, trade | Rihla |
| Al-Idrisi | Arab/Sicilian | 12th c. | General (geographer) | Geography, trade routes | Nuzhat al-Mushtaq |
| Marco Polo | Venetian | 13th c. | Pandya kingdom, Malabar | Trade, wealth, customs | Il Milione |
5. Early Modern / Colonial Foreign Travellers
Nicolo Conti
Early Modern • Italian
- Country
- Venice (Italy)
- Period
- c. 1420–1421 CE
- Region Visited
- Vijayanagara Empire
- Ruler
- Deva Raya I
Key Observations
- Described the grandeur of Vijayanagara city — estimated its circumference at 60 miles.
- Noted the king’s army of 90,000 men.
- Described Indian spice trade and the custom of sati.
Domingo Paes
Early Modern • Portuguese
- Country
- Portugal
- Period
- c. 1520–1522 CE
- Ruler Visited
- Krishnadeva Raya (Vijayanagara)
Key Observations
- Called Vijayanagara “as large as Rome” and described its bustling markets and grand festivals.
- Praised Krishnadeva Raya as an able administrator and warrior king.
- Described the Mahanavami festival in great detail — parades, music, wrestling.
- Provided important evidence on the social life, trade, and military strength of the empire.
Duarte Barbosa
Early Modern • Portuguese
- Country
- Portugal
- Period
- c. 1500–1516 CE
- Region
- Malabar coast, Vijayanagara
- Major Work
- Livro de Duarte Barbosa (The Book of Duarte Barbosa)
Key Observations
- Detailed account of the Malabar coast trade — pepper, ginger, cinnamon.
- Described the Nair warrior community and the matrilineal system of Kerala.
- Noted the presence of different merchant communities — Arab, Jewish, and Chinese traders.
- Described the caste system and the practice of untouchability in detail.
François Bernier
Early Modern • French
- Country
- France
- Period
- c. 1656–1668 CE
- Ruler
- Aurangzeb (Mughal Empire)
- Major Work
- Travels in the Mogul Empire
- Role
- Physician to Dara Shikoh, later attached to Mughal court
Key Observations
- Witnessed the war of succession among Shah Jahan’s sons.
- Described the Mughal crown ownership of all land — no private property in land (debated).
- Compared Mughal India unfavourably with Europe, calling it a “land of poverty amidst wealth.”
- Described the squalid condition of the common people versus the extreme luxury of the nobility.
- Noted the sati practice and the status of women.
- His accounts influenced European views of Indian “Oriental despotism.”
Examiner’s Note
Bernier’s account of Mughal land ownership is a common UPSC Mains topic — critically evaluate his claim that the emperor owned all land. Compare with actual Mughal revenue records.
Jean-Baptiste Tavernier
Early Modern • French
- Country
- France
- Period
- c. 1640–1668 CE (6 visits)
- Ruler
- Shah Jahan & Aurangzeb
- Major Work
- Travels in India
- Profession
- Gem merchant
Key Observations
- Described the diamond mines of Golconda and the gem trade in detail.
- Provided detailed accounts of Mughal trade, commerce, and currency.
- Described the Peacock Throne and the wealth of the Mughal court.
- Noted the condition of Indian roads, caravanserais, and trading practices.
- Described the Hindu practice of sati and various religious customs.
Region-Wise Summary — Early Modern Travellers
| Region Focus | Traveller | Key Themes |
|---|---|---|
| South India (Vijayanagara & Malabar) | Nicolo Conti | City grandeur, army strength, sati |
| Domingo Paes | Krishnadeva Raya, Mahanavami, markets | |
| Duarte Barbosa | Spice trade, Nairs, caste, Malabar coast | |
| North India (Mughal Empire) | François Bernier | Succession war, land ownership, poverty |
| J.-B. Tavernier | Diamond trade, Peacock Throne, commerce |
6. What Did Foreign Travellers Write About? (Thematic Analysis)
Across all periods, traveller accounts consistently cover five broad thematic areas. The following matrix shows which traveller provides the richest information on each theme.
| Theme | Key Travellers | What They Observed |
|---|---|---|
| Administration & Governance | Megasthenes, Ibn Battuta, Bernier | Mauryan bureaucracy, Sultanate postal system (Barid), Mughal land revenue, judicial systems |
| Economy & Trade | Marco Polo, Barbosa, Tavernier | Spice trade, Malabar ports, Golconda diamonds, currency, guilds, Indian Ocean commerce |
| Social Life & Caste | Megasthenes, Al-Beruni, Fa-Hien, Hiuen Tsang | Caste divisions, untouchability, sati, women’s status, festivals, food habits |
| Religion & Culture | Fa-Hien, Hiuen Tsang, I-Tsing, Al-Beruni | Buddhist monasteries, Hindu temples, Nalanda, philosophical systems, religious syncretism |
| Cities & Architecture | Megasthenes, Domingo Paes, Bernier | Pataliputra’s grandeur, Vijayanagara’s markets, Mughal Delhi, Agra, fortifications |
🧠 Theme-Wise Mind-Map
Thematic Areas of Traveller Accounts
Administration
Spy system • Revenue • Justice • Military
Economy
Ports • Currencies • Spices • Gems • Guilds
Society
Caste • Sati • Women • Food • Festivals
Religion
Buddhism • Hinduism • Sufism • Monasteries
Urban Life
Cities • Architecture • Markets • Roads
7. Reliability & Limitations of Foreign Accounts
While foreign accounts are invaluable, they must be used with critical caution. No single traveller’s account can be taken at face value — each must be cross-verified with other sources (inscriptions, archaeological evidence, indigenous literature).
✓ Strengths (Value)
- Provide outsider perspectives free from court flattery.
- Record everyday life — markets, roads, prices — often missing from inscriptions.
- Offer comparative observations across civilisations.
- Help establish chronologies when Indian sources are ambiguous.
- Corroborate or challenge claims in official court histories.
- Scholars like Al-Beruni studied Indian languages, adding depth and accuracy.
✗ Limitations (Biases)
- Cultural bias: Judged Indian customs by their own cultural standards.
- Language barriers: Most could not read Indian texts in the original (exception: Al-Beruni).
- Limited exposure: Many visited only capital cities or court circles — incomplete picture.
- Exaggeration: Some inflated numbers (army sizes, city populations) to impress home audiences.
- Political motives: Diplomats (Megasthenes) had strategic interests shaping their reports.
- Hearsay: Al-Idrisi, for instance, never personally visited India.
Mains Strategy
When writing about the reliability of foreign accounts in Mains, always take a balanced approach: acknowledge their unique value while discussing specific biases. Use concrete examples (e.g., Megasthenes’ claim of “no slavery” vs. evidence from other sources).
8. Interlinkages — Related Topics for UPSC
Foreign traveller accounts are best studied alongside the dynasties and themes they describe. Here are key topics you should study in conjunction:
Mauryan Administration
Megasthenes • Indica • Chandragupta
Gupta Period & Culture
Fa-Hien • Golden Age • Buddhist sites
Harshavardhana
Hiuen Tsang • Nalanda • Kanauj Assembly
Delhi Sultanate
Ibn Battuta • Tughlaq • Barid system
Vijayanagara Empire
Paes • Conti • Barbosa • Krishnadeva Raya
Mughal Empire
Bernier • Tavernier • Aurangzeb
Indian Ocean Trade
Marco Polo • Barbosa • Malabar spice route
Sources of Indian History
Literary • Archaeological • Foreign accounts
9. UPSC Exam Orientation
Prelims Focus Areas
- Traveller–Book matching: Megasthenes → Indica; Al-Beruni → Kitab-ul-Hind; Ibn Battuta → Rihla
- Period–Dynasty association: Fa-Hien → Gupta; Hiuen Tsang → Harsha; Bernier → Mughal
- Unique observations: Megasthenes’ seven-fold division; Bernier’s “no private property”; Paes on Mahanavami
Mains Focus Areas
- Critical evaluation of traveller accounts as historical sources.
- Comparison between Chinese pilgrim accounts and Arab scholar accounts.
- Use of traveller evidence to reconstruct administration, trade, and society of specific periods.
Practice MCQs (Prelims Pattern)
Question 1
Consider the following statements:
1. Fa-Hien visited India during the reign of Harshavardhana.
2. Hiuen Tsang described Nalanda University in detail.
3. I-Tsing visited India after Hiuen Tsang and also described Nalanda.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
1. Fa-Hien visited India during the reign of Harshavardhana.
2. Hiuen Tsang described Nalanda University in detail.
3. I-Tsing visited India after Hiuen Tsang and also described Nalanda.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Answer: (b) 2 and 3 only
Statement 1 is incorrect: Fa-Hien visited during the reign of Chandragupta II (Gupta dynasty), not Harshavardhana. Statements 2 and 3 are correct — both Hiuen Tsang and I-Tsing described Nalanda.
Statement 1 is incorrect: Fa-Hien visited during the reign of Chandragupta II (Gupta dynasty), not Harshavardhana. Statements 2 and 3 are correct — both Hiuen Tsang and I-Tsing described Nalanda.
Question 2
Match the following:
Select the correct answer:
| A. Indica | 1. Ibn Battuta |
| B. Rihla | 2. Al-Beruni |
| C. Kitab-ul-Hind | 3. Megasthenes |
| D. Si-Yu-Ki | 4. Hiuen Tsang |
Answer: (b) A-3, B-1, C-2, D-4
Indica → Megasthenes; Rihla → Ibn Battuta; Kitab-ul-Hind → Al-Beruni; Si-Yu-Ki → Hiuen Tsang.
Indica → Megasthenes; Rihla → Ibn Battuta; Kitab-ul-Hind → Al-Beruni; Si-Yu-Ki → Hiuen Tsang.
Question 3
Consider the following statements about François Bernier:
1. He was a French traveller who visited India during Akbar’s reign.
2. He described the Mughal emperor as the owner of all land in the empire.
3. He was initially attached to the court of Dara Shikoh.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
1. He was a French traveller who visited India during Akbar’s reign.
2. He described the Mughal emperor as the owner of all land in the empire.
3. He was initially attached to the court of Dara Shikoh.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Answer: (b) 2 and 3 only
Statement 1 is incorrect: Bernier visited during Aurangzeb’s reign (and the period of succession war after Shah Jahan), not Akbar’s. Statements 2 and 3 are correct.
Statement 1 is incorrect: Bernier visited during Aurangzeb’s reign (and the period of succession war after Shah Jahan), not Akbar’s. Statements 2 and 3 are correct.
Question 4
Which of the following foreign travellers is known for providing a detailed account of the Vijayanagara Empire under Krishnadeva Raya?
Answer: (b) Domingo Paes
Domingo Paes visited during the reign of Krishnadeva Raya (c. 1520–22) and gave a vivid account of the Mahanavami festival, markets, and the grandeur of the Vijayanagara capital.
Domingo Paes visited during the reign of Krishnadeva Raya (c. 1520–22) and gave a vivid account of the Mahanavami festival, markets, and the grandeur of the Vijayanagara capital.
Mains Practice Questions
GS Paper I — 10 Marks (150 words)
“Foreign travellers’ accounts are indispensable yet problematic sources for reconstructing Indian history.” Critically examine this statement with examples.
Approach Hints
- Introduction: Define what constitutes foreign traveller accounts as historical sources.
- Body — Value: Give 3–4 examples of unique contributions (Megasthenes on Mauryan admin, Hiuen Tsang on Nalanda, Ibn Battuta on Sultanate postal system).
- Body — Problems: Discuss cultural bias, exaggeration, limited exposure, language barriers with specific examples.
- Conclusion: They are valuable when cross-verified with other source categories (inscriptions, archaeology).
GS Paper I — 15 Marks (250 words)
Compare and contrast the accounts of Chinese Buddhist pilgrims (Fa-Hien, Hiuen Tsang, I-Tsing) with those of Arab scholars (Al-Beruni, Ibn Battuta) regarding their observations on Indian society and religion. What factors influenced their differing perspectives?
Approach Hints
- Introduction: Both groups provide rich but differently oriented accounts.
- Chinese pilgrims: Focused on Buddhism — monasteries, decline/flourishing of the faith, Nalanda, monastic discipline. Motivated by religious pilgrimage.
- Arab scholars: Broader socio-scientific focus — caste, philosophy, astronomy, administration. Motivated by intellectual inquiry and trade.
- Contrast: Chinese accounts are more religious/spiritual; Arab accounts are more analytical/comparative. Al-Beruni learned Sanskrit; Chinese pilgrims also learned local languages.
- Factors influencing perspective: Purpose of visit, home culture, religious background, language competence, duration of stay, political context.
- Conclusion: Together they provide a more complete picture than either alone. The comparative approach is essential for historians.
10. Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)
Megasthenes (c. 302–298 BCE) is widely regarded as the first significant foreign traveller to India whose account survives. He was a Greek ambassador sent by Seleucus Nicator to the court of Chandragupta Maurya. His book Indica, though surviving only in fragments through later writers, provides the earliest detailed foreign description of Indian administration, society, and geography. Earlier Greeks like Scylax and Ctesias had references to India, but Megasthenes’ account is the most systematic.
Several European travellers described the Vijayanagara Empire. Domingo Paes (Portuguese, c. 1520–22) provided the most detailed account during the reign of Krishnadeva Raya, describing the city’s grandeur, markets, and the Mahanavami festival. Nicolo Conti (Italian, c. 1420) visited during Deva Raya I’s reign. Duarte Barbosa (Portuguese, c. 1500–16) described the Malabar coast trade and Vijayanagara’s society. Abdur Razzaq (Persian, c. 1443) also visited during Deva Raya II’s reign and described the city as one of the largest in the world.
Al-Beruni (c. 1017–1030 CE) is considered exceptionally reliable for several reasons. First, he learned Sanskrit and studied Indian texts (Patanjali, Samkhya, Puranas) in the original, rather than relying on interpreters. Second, he adopted a comparative and scientific method — he presented Indian ideas on their own terms before adding his analysis. Third, he was aware of his own biases and tried to be objective. Fourth, he covered a vast range of subjects (philosophy, astronomy, mathematics, geography, social customs, caste) with depth and rigour. His work Kitab-ul-Hind is often called the first systematic comparative study of Indian civilisation.
Chinese travellers (Fa-Hien, Hiuen Tsang, I-Tsing) were primarily Buddhist pilgrims. Their accounts focus heavily on the state of Buddhism in India — monasteries, monks, sacred sites, and religious practices. They are rich in information about religious culture but offer comparatively less detail on administration or trade.
Arab/Persian scholars (Al-Masudi, Al-Beruni, Ibn Battuta) had a broader scholarly and commercial orientation. They documented Indian philosophy, science, mathematics, administration, economy, and trade alongside society and religion. Al-Beruni, for instance, studied Indian astronomical and mathematical systems in depth. Ibn Battuta described the Sultanate’s postal system, judicial practices, and court life.
In short: Chinese accounts are more spiritually oriented, while Arab accounts are more analytically and socio-economically oriented. Together, they provide complementary perspectives.
Arab/Persian scholars (Al-Masudi, Al-Beruni, Ibn Battuta) had a broader scholarly and commercial orientation. They documented Indian philosophy, science, mathematics, administration, economy, and trade alongside society and religion. Al-Beruni, for instance, studied Indian astronomical and mathematical systems in depth. Ibn Battuta described the Sultanate’s postal system, judicial practices, and court life.
In short: Chinese accounts are more spiritually oriented, while Arab accounts are more analytically and socio-economically oriented. Together, they provide complementary perspectives.
Ibn Battuta (Moroccan traveller, c. 1333–1347 CE) described the Barid (postal system) of the Delhi Sultanate under Muhammad bin Tughlaq in his book Rihla. He described two types of postal service: the horse-post (Ulaq) for faster communication and the foot-post (Dawa) which used runners stationed at intervals. The system was used to relay intelligence and news rapidly across the vast Sultanate.
Jean-Baptiste Tavernier (French gem merchant, c. 1640–1668 CE) provided the most detailed account of the diamond mines of Golconda and the broader gem trade of Mughal India. He visited India six times and was a professional jeweller, giving his account particular credibility on matters of gems, trade, and commerce. He also described the Peacock Throne of the Mughals.
Fa-Hien (Faxian) is the most notable foreign traveller who visited India during the Gupta period (c. 399–414 CE), specifically during the reign of Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya). His account in Fo-Kuo-Ki describes the Gupta Empire as peaceful and prosperous, with mild punishments, good roads, charitable hospitals, and a flourishing Buddhist community. His is one of the primary external sources for understanding the “Golden Age” of Indian history.
Foreign travellers’ accounts are useful for UPSC in multiple ways. For Prelims, expect factual MCQs on traveller–book–dynasty matching, unique observations, and chronology. For GS-I Mains, questions may ask you to critically evaluate traveller accounts as sources of Indian history, or use them to describe the administration/society/economy of a specific period. For the Interview, analytical questions on the reliability of historical sources or the comparative value of different types of evidence may be asked. Studying this topic also helps in answering questions on specific dynasties (Maurya, Gupta, Sultanate, Mughal, Vijayanagara).
