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Causes of Land Degradation — 8 Key Processes
Soil is the thin skin of the Earth that feeds all life — and humanity is destroying it faster than it can form
💡 Soil Is the Earth’s Skin — And We’re Giving It a Thousand Cuts
Healthy agricultural soil takes 500–1,000 years to form 1 cm naturally through weathering of rock and decomposition of organic matter. Yet in a single generation, India has degraded nearly 30% of its total land area through overgrazing, poor agriculture, deforestation, and faulty irrigation. The 8 causes below are interconnected — deforestation leads to water erosion, which leads to desertification, which leads to drought. Understanding these causes is the first step to soil conservation.
🌲
Deforestation
Root Loss · Runoff · Erosion
Trees hold soil with roots, absorb rainwater, and reduce runoff. Deforestation → bare soil → rain hits directly → surface runoff → erosion. Since 1980, India diverted 1.5 million hectares of forest for development. Current forest cover (~21.7%, ISFR 2023) remains below the 33% target. Jhum cultivation (slash-and-burn) in Northeast India particularly destructive. Himalayan deforestation → flash floods and landslides in plains.
🐄
Overgrazing
Compaction · Vegetation Loss
Excessive livestock grazing removes vegetation cover, destroys root systems, and compacts soil (reducing water infiltration). Thar Desert expansion in Rajasthan-Pakistan is partly attributable to overgrazing combined with poor land management. India has more cattle than it can sustainably support on its grazing lands. Common lands (grazing areas) reduced by 19% in a decade. Nomadic herder pressure on forest margins.
🌾
Faulty Agricultural Methods
Chemical inputs · Monocultures
Overuse of chemical fertilisers and pesticides degrades soil microbiome and pH balance (Punjab/Haryana — Green Revolution legacy). Monoculture farming depletes specific nutrients. Stubble burning destroys soil organic matter. Deep ploughing destroys soil structure. Absence of crop rotation. Intercropping replaced by monocultures. Farm mechanisation compacts soil. Chemical pesticides kill soil organisms.
🧂
Soil Salinity & Alkalinity
White lands · Canal irrigation
Soil salinity (Reh/Usar): Excess salts deposited in soil through over-irrigation in poorly drained areas. Water evaporates, salts remain → white crystalline crust on soil surface → makes soil infertile (“Reh” soils). Affects ~30 million hectares. Common in IGP canal-irrigated areas (UP, Punjab). Alkalinity: Accumulation of sodium carbonate → sodic (black alkali) soils — common in black cotton soil regions of Maharashtra/Karnataka.
🏜️
Desertification
Dryland degradation · Thar expansion
Land degradation in arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid areas — causing previously fertile land to acquire desert-like characteristics. Not the same as desert expansion per se — desertification can happen far from natural deserts. Rajasthan: 68.3% undergoing desertification (ISRO 2021). India’s total desertified area: ~97.85 mha (ISRO). Causes: drought, overgrazing, deforestation, over-irrigation. Expanding Thar Desert threatens Delhi and NCR (role of Aravalli hills as barrier).
💧
Waterlogging
Over-irrigation · Poor drainage
Excessive irrigation raises the water table → soil becomes saturated → roots can’t access oxygen → crops die → land abandoned. Also raises salt levels (secondary salinity). Affects canal-irrigated areas extensively — especially in Indira Gandhi Nahar Project area (Rajasthan), parts of Punjab/Haryana. Poor drainage design in irrigation projects is the primary cause. Can be reversed through drainage channels and controlled irrigation.
🌊
Water Erosion
Gullying · Sheet erosion · Ravines
Rainfall removes topsoil → nutrients lost → reduced fertility. Types: (1) Sheet erosion: uniform removal of thin soil layer over wide area. (2) Rill erosion: water creates small channels. (3) Gully erosion: deep channels carved by concentrated water flow — creates ravines. The Chambal Ravines of UP/MP/Rajasthan are India’s most dramatic example — millions of hectares rendered uncultivable. Kerala, Odisha, Himalayan states face severe water erosion.
💨
Wind Erosion
Arid zones · Thar · Dust storms
Blowing away of fine soil particles from bare, dry land surfaces. Worst in arid/semi-arid regions (Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana). Removes nutrient-rich topsoil. Creates sand dunes. Dust storms from Thar Desert contribute 40% of Delhi’s PM2.5 in summer (CPCB). Sand dune migration threatens villages and agricultural land (Rajasthan, Gujarat). Wind erosion is accelerated by overgrazing and deforestation that remove protective vegetation.
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India’s Land Degradation — Scale and Regional Patterns
ISRO’s Desertification and Land Degradation Atlas is the primary data source for UPSC
97.85 mha
India’s degraded land (ISRO Atlas 2018-19). Equal to 29.7% of India’s total 328.72 mha
~30%
India’s geographical area facing some form of desertification or land degradation
18.94 mha
Land already restored by India towards 26 mha 2030 target (PIB, 2024)
India’s Land Degradation — Key Data Points
- Primary data source: Desertification and Land Degradation Atlas — published by Space Applications Centre (SAC), ISRO. Uses remote sensing data. Provides state-wise land degradation information.
- Total degraded land (2018-19): 97.85 million hectares (29.7% of India’s total geographical area of 328.72 mha)
- Most severely degraded states:
- Rajasthan: 68.3% of state area undergoing desertification (ISRO, 2021)
- Delhi, Gujarat, Rajasthan: more than 50% of land deteriorated (ISRO assessment)
- Chambal region: severe gully erosion — ravines covering millions of hectares in UP, MP, Rajasthan
- Soil salinity and waterlogging: ~30 million hectares affected by salinity/alkalinity — primarily in canal-irrigated IGP
- Common lands loss: India lost 19% of common lands (shared grazing areas) in a decade — critical for pastoral communities and biodiversity
- Grasslands loss: India lost 31% of grasslands in a decade — directly linked to wildlife habitat destruction and erosion increase
- Aravalli threat: Over 25% of Aravalli range has vanished due to mining, deforestation, encroachments. If Aravallis degrade further, Thar Desert can expand eastward towards Delhi-NCR — bringing dust storms, groundwater depletion, extreme heat.
- Groundwater depletion as trigger: In Haryana and Rajasthan, groundwater levels declining by 1–1.5 metres annually (CGWB, 2023) — accelerating both soil salinity and desertification.
Regional Causes — State-Level UPSC Knowledge
- Rajasthan: Wind erosion + overgrazing + drought + over-extraction of groundwater → Thar expansion
- Punjab/Haryana: Over-irrigation → waterlogging + salinity | Chemical fertiliser overuse → soil pH disruption | Stubble burning → topsoil organic matter loss
- Chambal (UP/MP/Rajasthan): Water erosion → ravines → millions of hectares of “bad land” | Classic gully erosion
- Northeast India: Jhum (slash-and-burn) cultivation → deforestation → water erosion → soil exhaustion
- Kerala/Odisha (Western Ghats): Intense rainfall + deforestation → flash floods + severe water erosion + landslides
- Goa/Western coastal states: Mining → physical soil disturbance → scarring → acid drainage → water body pollution
- Cold desert areas (Ladakh/Sikkim): Permafrost thaw + overgrazing on fragile alpine meadows → desertification in cold environments
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Soil Conservation — Methods to Protect and Restore
Prevention is better than cure — conservation methods matched to specific degradation types
Physical/Mechanical Methods
🌀 Contour Ploughing
Ploughing along contour lines (not up-down slopes). Each furrow acts as a small dam retaining water. Reduces runoff velocity → reduces water erosion. Most effective on gentle slopes (5–7° gradient).
📐 Terracing
Creating level platforms (terraces) on hillsides for cultivation. Converts slopes into staircases. Bunding: earthen embankments along contours to hold water. Common in Northeast India, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh.
🌊 Strip Cropping
Growing different crops in alternating strips across slopes — strips of grass/legumes alternate with grain crops. Grass strips slow runoff, trap sediment. Reduces erosion by 75–90% compared to monocultures on slopes.
🌿 Shelter Belts / Windbreaks
Rows of trees/tall shrubs planted perpendicular to prevailing winds. Reduces wind speed → reduces wind erosion. Also reduces moisture evaporation. Used in Rajasthan and Gujarat to combat sand dune movement.
🚧 Check Dams / Gully Plugging
Small stone/earthen structures placed across gullies and ravines. Slows water flow → allows sediment deposition → gradually fills gully. Used in Chambal ravines rehabilitation. Also recharges groundwater.
🏔️ Sand Dune Stabilisation
Planting grasses (Lasiurus sindicus) and shrubs on active sand dunes → roots stabilise sand. Mechanical measures: wind fences (straw/bamboo) slow sand movement. Used in Rajasthan under Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI) programmes.
Biological/Ecological Methods
🌱 Afforestation
Planting trees on degraded land. Tree roots bind soil, canopy reduces raindrop impact, leaf litter improves organic matter. Under National Afforestation Programme (NAP), Green India Mission (GIM), CAMPA funds.
🌾 Crop Rotation
Alternating different crops seasonally. Legumes fix nitrogen → reduces fertiliser need → maintains soil health. Prevents depletion of specific nutrients. Reduces pest buildup. Recommended in all government agriculture schemes.
🌲 Agroforestry
Integrating trees with crops/livestock on same land. Trees provide shade, fix nitrogen, reduce erosion, provide additional income. Promoted under National Agroforestry Policy 2014. Key component of Aravalli Green Wall Project.
🌿 Mulching
Covering soil surface with organic material (straw, leaves, compost). Reduces evaporation, moderates temperature, suppresses weeds, prevents crusting from rain impact, improves organic matter.
💚 Green Manuring
Growing and incorporating nitrogen-fixing crops (dhaincha, sunn hemp) into soil before planting main crop. Improves soil structure, organic matter, nitrogen levels. Reduces chemical fertiliser dependency.
🌊 Watershed Management
Integrated catchment-level management combining afforestation, check dams, contour bunding, and livelihood support. Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY) — Watershed Development component — covers millions of hectares.
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United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)
The only legally binding international agreement linking environment and development to sustainable land management
🌐 UNCCD — Everything UPSC Needs
- Full name: United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification, Particularly in Africa
- Established: 1994 | In force: 1996
- One of the “Rio Conventions”: Alongside UNFCCC (climate) and CBD (biodiversity) — all emerged from the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro
- Only legally binding framework: Addresses desertification and the effects of drought. Links environment, development, and sustainable land management
- Parties: 197 (196 states + EU)
- India: Signatory in 1994 | Ratified in 1996
- Secretariat: Bonn, Germany
- Principles: Participation, partnership, and decentralisation | Bottom-up approach — encourages participation of local people
- Focus areas: Arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid ecosystems (drylands) | Special attention to Africa
- COPs: Held every 2 years
- Global Mechanism (GM): Established 1994 under Article 21 | Facilitates mobilisation of financial resources to address desertification, land degradation, and drought
- SDG link: SDG 15.3 — “By 2030, combat desertification and restore degraded land and soil, including land affected by desertification, drought and floods, and strive to achieve a land degradation-neutral world”
- Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN): Goal of no NET loss of healthy, productive land — achieving balance between land degradation and restoration. Over 120 countries have committed to LDN targets (Changwon Initiative, 2011).
- India’s UNCCD commitment: Restore 26 million hectares of degraded land by 2030 | Create additional carbon sink of 2.5–3 billion tonnes CO₂ equivalent by 2030
COP History — Key Milestones
- COP-14, New Delhi, 2019: India hosted the UNCCD COP-14. India committed to restoring 26 million hectares of degraded land by 2030. Delhi Declaration — “Land Rights, Land Restoration and People’s Rights”. India also pledged South-South Cooperation on sustainable land management.
- COP-15, Abidjan (Côte d’Ivoire), 2022: “Land. Life. Legacy: From scarcity to prosperity.” Focused on dryland restoration and drought resilience. Coincided with India’s G20 Presidency preparations on land restoration.
- COP-16, Riyadh (Saudi Arabia), December 2-13, 2024: See Section 5 below — major current affairs.
- Global Land Outlook Reports: UNCCD’s flagship assessments of global land trends. Warn about catastrophic consequences if land degradation continues. Key finding: Without action, 1.5 billion people will be forced to migrate by 2050 due to land degradation, drought, and desertification.
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UNCCD COP-16 Riyadh — December 2024 Major Current Affairs
Largest-ever UN land conference · “Our Land. Our Future” · 30th anniversary of UNCCD · First MENA COP
🔴 UNCCD COP-16 — Complete Coverage
- When: December 2–13, 2024
- Where: Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
- Theme: “Our Land. Our Future.”
- Significance:
- 30th anniversary of the UNCCD (established 1994)
- First UNCCD COP held in Middle East and North Africa (MENA) — a region that directly experiences desertification, land degradation, and drought
- Described as the largest UN land conference ever — coinciding with Saudi Green Initiative and Middle East Green Initiative
- Undertook mid-term evaluation of the 2018–2030 UNCCD Strategic Framework
- Global statistics highlighted at COP-16:
- 40% of world’s land is degraded — impacting the lives of 3.2 billion people globally
- Annual global cost of drought: exceeds $307 billion
- Human-induced droughts have increased by 29% since 2000
- By 2050: three in four people could be affected by drought
- Global economic losses from land degradation: $10.6 trillion annually (~17% of world GDP)
- Land degradation reduces carbon sequestration capacity by 20%
- UNCCD Report: “Stepping Back from the Precipice: Transforming Land Management to Stay Within Planetary Boundaries” — released just before COP-16
- Restoration investments: Investments in land restoration increased from $37 billion (2016) to $66 billion (2022), but a shortfall of $278 billion remains to meet 2030 targets
- $12 billion pledged: Governments, development banks, and international organisations pledged over US$12 billion to finance land restoration at COP-16
- Drought framework: Discussions on a global drought resilience framework — filling the gap that no binding international drought agreement currently exists
🔴 India at UNCCD COP-16 Riyadh India Specific
- India’s delegation: Led by Union Environment Minister Bhupender Yadav and Haryana Chief Minister Nayab Singh Saini
- India showcased: The ambitious Aravalli Green Wall Project — India’s flagship land restoration initiative
- India’s message: Union Minister emphasised that land degradation is not just an environmental but a socioeconomic issue — directly linked to poverty. India’s programmes: Soil Health Cards, PM Krishi Sinchayee Yojana, Green Credit Programme, Amrit Sarovar.
- India’s restoration progress: Of the committed 26 mha target, India has already restored 18.94 million hectares as of 2024 (PIB)
- India’s Amrit Sarovar: 50,000 amrit sarovars (water conservation ponds) being constructed — contributes to soil moisture and anti-desertification
- Green Credit Programme: Voluntary market-based initiative for ecological restoration — mentioned by India as innovative financing mechanism at COP-16
- G20 Global Land Initiative: Aligns with India’s G20 Presidency (2022) commitment — aims to reduce degraded land by 50% by 2040
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Aravalli Green Wall Project — India’s Answer to Desertification 2023-25
1,400 km × 5 km green belt · Inspired by Africa’s Great Green Wall · Stops Thar Desert expansion eastward
💡 The Aravalli Green Wall — India’s Great Green Wall
Africa’s Great Green Wall — an 8,000 km belt spanning 11 countries from Senegal to Djibouti across the Sahel — was launched in 2007 to stop the Sahara from expanding southward. It has already restored ~18 million hectares. India’s Aravalli range plays the same role — a natural barrier preventing the Thar Desert from expanding eastward into Delhi, Jaipur, and the northern plains. But the Aravallis are themselves degraded — mining, deforestation, encroachments have removed 25%+ of the range. The Aravalli Green Wall Project is India’s answer — restoring this ancient mountain range before the desert wins.
Aravalli Green Wall Project — Complete UPSC Profile
- Launched: March 2023 by Union Environment Minister Bhupender Yadav (International Day of Forests) at Tikli Village, Gurugram, Haryana. PM Modi planted first sapling on World Environment Day (June 5) 2025 at Delhi’s Ridge, formally beginning implementation.
- Dimensions: 1,400 km long × 5 km wide green belt along the Aravalli mountain range
- States covered: Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Delhi — 29 districts | 6 million hectares total landscape
- Inspired by: Africa’s Great Green Wall — 8,000 km belt across Sahel (Senegal to Djibouti), launched 2007 by African Union
- Near-term target: Restore 1.15 million hectares of degraded land by 2027
- Initial phase: 75 water bodies rejuvenated | ~1,000 nurseries developed for continuous plantation
- Monitoring: All plantation activities geo-tagged and monitored via the Meri LiFE portal (in collaboration with UNICEF)
- Key objectives:
- Prevent eastward expansion of Thar Desert into Delhi-NCR and northern plains
- Reduce dust storms (Rajasthan dust = 40% of Delhi’s summer PM2.5)
- Restore groundwater recharge (Aravallis = fractured aquifer)
- Revive rivers originating from Aravallis: Banas, Sahibi, Chambal, Luni, Sabarmati
- Plant native tree species; enhance biodiversity
- Promote agroforestry and sustainable livelihoods for local communities
- Strategic importance: Aravallis regulate NW India monsoon patterns, guide monsoon clouds eastward, protect northern plains from cold Central Asian winds
- International frameworks linked: UNCCD (LDN targets), CBD, UNFCCC (Paris Agreement carbon sink of 2.5 Bn tonnes CO₂ by 2030)
- Part of: National Action Plan to Combat Desertification (NAPCD) 2023
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Bonn Challenge, India’s Targets & Other Initiatives
Connecting India’s 26 mha pledge to the Bonn Challenge, Paris Agreement, and UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration
| Initiative | Year | Target | India’s Commitment |
|---|---|---|---|
| Bonn Challenge | 2011 | Restore 350 million hectares of degraded land globally by 2030 | India committed to restore 26 million hectares by 2030. Of this, 18.94 mha already restored (PIB, 2024) |
| UNCCD LDN (Land Degradation Neutrality) | 2015 (SDGs) | SDG 15.3: Achieve land degradation neutrality by 2030 worldwide | India’s national LDN target = restore 26 mha + prevent further degradation to maintain balance |
| Paris Agreement (UNFCCC) | 2015 | NDC targets per country | India: Additional carbon sink of 2.5–3 billion tonnes CO₂ equivalent by 2030 through enhanced forest and tree cover — requires restoring 24.7 million hectares |
| UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration | 2021–2030 | Prevent, halt, and reverse land degradation at scale globally | India’s Green India Mission (GIM), Aravalli Green Wall, PMKSY-Watershed all contribute to this decade’s goals |
| G20 Global Land Initiative | 2022 (India’s G20 Presidency) | Reduce degraded land by 50% by 2040 | India championed this at its G20 Presidency. Builds on UNCCD COP-16 legacy. |
| Green India Mission (GIM) — Revised 2025 | 2021-30 (revised) | Afforestation over 1.0 million hectares in 10 years | Carbon sink 3.39 billion tonnes (combined) | ₹12,190 crore financial outlay. Micro-ecosystem approach in Aravallis, Western Ghats, NW arid regions, mangroves, Himalayan region. ₹909.82 crore allocated to 17 states by July 2024 for 1,55,130 hectares. |
Key India Programmes for Land Restoration
- Soil Health Card Scheme: Launched February 19, 2015. Farmers receive cards with crop-wise recommendations for nutrients and fertilisers based on actual soil testing. Helps combat chemical overuse → prevents soil pH disruption and degradation. Mentioned by India’s delegation at UNCCD COP-16 as a key initiative.
- PMKSY-Watershed Development: Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana. Watershed-based restoration covering millions of hectares — check dams, contour bunding, vegetative cover restoration, farm ponds.
- Amrit Sarovar: Mission to construct/restore 50,000 water bodies (ponds) across India. Directly contributes to groundwater recharge and reducing soil moisture deficit — anti-desertification benefit.
- National Afforestation Programme (NAP) + CAMPA: Tree planting on degraded forest land. CAMPA funds (from forest diversion compensation) used for afforestation in degraded areas.
- Green Credit Programme: Voluntary market mechanism for ecological restoration — companies can earn “green credits” by planting trees on degraded wastelands, improving soil health, etc.
- CAZRI (Central Arid Zone Research Institute), Jodhpur: India’s premier research institute for arid zone management. Research on sand dune stabilisation, drought-resistant crops, water harvesting in desert conditions. Key technical input for Thar Desert management.
- National Action Plan to Combat Desertification (NAPCD) 2023: Framework for India’s holistic approach to combat desertification through forestry interventions. Launched alongside the Aravalli Green Wall Project.
⭐ Complete Land Degradation & Desertification Cheat Sheet
- Desertification definition: Land degradation in arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid areas (drylands) due to climate variations AND human activities
- India’s degraded land: 97.85 mha = 29.7% of total geographical area (ISRO Atlas 2018-19). Source: SAC, ISRO.
- Rajasthan: 68.3% desertifying | Chambal: ravines from gully erosion | Punjab/Haryana: salinity/waterlogging | NE India: jhum erosion
- Common lands loss: 19% | Grasslands loss: 31% — both in one decade
- Soil salinity (Reh/Usar): Over-irrigation → water evaporates → salts remain → white crust → ~30 mha affected
- Soil conservation: Contour ploughing · Terracing/Bunding · Strip cropping · Shelter belts · Check dams · Gully plugging · Sand dune stabilisation · Afforestation · Crop rotation · Agroforestry · Mulching · Watershed management
- UNCCD: 1994 | One of three Rio Conventions | 197 parties | India: signatory 1994, ratified 1996 | Secretariat: Bonn, Germany | Bottom-up approach | Only legally binding framework for land-environment-development link | SDG 15.3
- LDN (Land Degradation Neutrality): No net loss of healthy land. SDG 15.3 target. 120+ countries committed (Changwon Initiative 2011)
- India’s UNCCD commitment: Restore 26 mha by 2030 | Carbon sink 2.5–3 billion tonnes CO₂ by 2030 | Already restored: 18.94 mha (PIB 2024)
- COP-14: New Delhi, 2019 | India hosted | Committed to 26 mha | Delhi Declaration
- COP-16: Riyadh, Saudi Arabia | Dec 2-13, 2024 | Theme: “Our Land. Our Future.” | 30th anniversary UNCCD | First MENA COP | Largest UN land conference | $12 billion pledged | 40% world land degraded | 3.2 billion people impacted | Drought costs $307 Bn/year | India showcased Aravalli Green Wall | Bhupender Yadav led delegation
- UNCCD COP-16 key stats: $10.6 trillion annual global economic loss | Droughts up 29% since 2000 | 75% people affected by drought by 2050 | Carbon sequestration capacity reduced 20%
- Aravalli Green Wall: 2023 (launched) · 2025 (PM Modi planted first sapling) · 1,400 km × 5 km · 4 states (Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Delhi) · Inspired by Africa’s Great Green Wall · Target: 1.15 mha by 2027 · Monitored via Meri LiFE portal · 75 water bodies rejuvenated
- Africa Great Green Wall: 8,000 km · 11 Sahel countries (Senegal to Djibouti) · Launched 2007 by African Union · 18 mha restored
- Bonn Challenge: 2011 | Restore 350 mha globally by 2030
- Paris Agreement land: India: 2.5–3 billion tonnes CO₂ sink by 2030 via forest/tree cover
- Green India Mission (revised 2025): ₹12,190 crore | 1 million hectares afforestation | Micro-ecosystem approach
- Key soil conservation bodies: CAZRI (Jodhpur — arid zone research) | SAC-ISRO (Desertification Atlas) | ICAR institutes
- Soil Health Cards: Launched Feb 2015 | Crop-wise nutrient recommendations | Combat chemical overuse
🧪 Practice MCQs
Q1. The UNCCD COP-16 held in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia in December 2024 is notable for which of the following reasons?
1. It was held with the theme “Our Land. Our Future.”
2. It coincided with the 30th anniversary of the UNCCD.
3. It was the first UNCCD COP held in the Middle East and North Africa region.
4. $12 billion was pledged for land restoration.
Select the CORRECT statements:
✅ Answer: (d) — All four are correct
1 ✅: UNCCD COP-16’s official theme was “Our Land. Our Future.” — emphasising people-centred approaches to land restoration and drought resilience. 2 ✅: The UNCCD was established in 1994; COP-16 was held in December 2024 — exactly 30 years later. It was specifically described as a “30th anniversary summit.” 3 ✅: Riyadh, Saudi Arabia (in the MENA region) hosted the first UNCCD COP in the Middle East and North Africa — a region that directly experiences desertification, land degradation, and drought. 4 ✅: Governments, development banks, and international organisations collectively pledged over US$12 billion to finance land restoration efforts at COP-16 — a significant mobilisation of resources. Note: India was represented at COP-16 by Union Environment Minister Bhupender Yadav and Haryana CM Nayab Singh Saini, who showcased the Aravalli Green Wall Project.
Q2. The Aravalli Green Wall Project, inspired by Africa’s Great Green Wall, is primarily aimed at preventing which of the following?
✅ Answer: (c) — Eastward expansion of Thar Desert towards Delhi-NCR
The Aravalli range runs ~1,400 km from northeast to southwest through Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana, and Delhi. Historically, it has acted as a natural barrier preventing the Thar Desert from expanding eastward into the fertile northern plains. However, decades of mining, deforestation, and urban encroachment have degraded 25%+ of the Aravalli range — weakening this barrier. If the Aravallis continue to degrade, the Thar can push further east, threatening Delhi, Jaipur, Gurugram, and agricultural land in Haryana and western UP. The Aravalli Green Wall Project — a 1,400 km × 5 km green belt across Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Delhi — is designed to restore this ecological barrier, prevent desert expansion, reduce dust storms (Rajasthan dust = 40% of Delhi’s summer PM2.5), and rejuvenate groundwater. Africa’s Great Green Wall (Senegal to Djibouti, 8,000 km) is the inspiration — designed to stop the Sahara from expanding southward into the Sahel. (a) Wrong: That describes Africa’s Great Green Wall, not Aravalli. (b) Wrong: That is a salinity/waterlogging problem, not what Aravalli addresses directly. (d) Wrong: Gujarat’s coastal areas face different issues.
Q3. “Soil salinity” (also called Reh or Usar lands in India) is caused primarily by which of the following processes?
✅ Answer: (c) — Over-irrigation → water table rise → salts deposited as water evaporates
Soil salinity (Reh/Usar soils) is caused by the following mechanism: (1) Excessive irrigation — particularly in poorly drained canal-irrigated areas — raises the water table. (2) As the water table rises to near the surface, water is drawn upward through capillary action. (3) When this water evaporates from the soil surface, it leaves behind soluble salts (sodium chloride, sodium sulphate, calcium salts). (4) Over time, these salts accumulate into a white crystalline crust on the soil surface — making it increasingly infertile. (5) Eventually the soil becomes too salty for crops — white “Reh” or “Usar” land. This is a major problem across Punjab, Haryana, and parts of UP where canal irrigation from the Green Revolution era raised water tables. About 30 million hectares in India are affected. Corrective measures: drainage channels (to lower water table), surface flushing (flooding with fresh water to dissolve salts and drain them), deep ploughing, gypsum application (for alkali soils), salt-tolerant crops (halophytes). Waterlogging is a related problem — when land becomes so waterlogged that roots are asphyxiated — also from over-irrigation in poorly drained areas.
📜 UPSC Previous Year Questions (PYQs)
What is/are the importance/importances of the ‘United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification’?
1. It aims to promote effective action through innovative national programmes and supportive international partnerships.
2. It has a special/particular focus on South Asia and North Africa regions, and its Secretariat facilitates the allocation of major portion of financial resources to these regions.
3. It is committed to a bottom-up approach, encouraging the participation of local people in combating desertification.
Select the correct answer:
✅ Official Answer: (c) 1 and 3 only. Statement 2 is WRONG.
Statement 1 ✅: UNCCD aims to promote effective action through innovative national programmes (national action plans to combat desertification) and supportive international partnerships. The Convention explicitly calls for combining national-level action with international cooperation, technology transfer, and financial support. Statement 2 ❌ Wrong: The UNCCD has a special focus on Africa (not South Asia) — as the full name states: “…particularly in Africa.” Dryland areas in Africa are the most severely affected by desertification. While the UNCCD helps all affected developing countries, Africa has special status in the convention. The Secretariat is in Bonn, Germany — not focused on South Asia or North Africa regions. The Convention’s financial mechanism (Global Mechanism) does NOT allocate a “major portion” specifically to these regions. Statement 3 ✅: The UNCCD is explicitly committed to a bottom-up approach — encouraging participation of local people, indigenous communities, NGOs, women, and youth in combating desertification. This participatory approach distinguishes UNCCD from top-down conventions.
Which of the following are the reasons/factors for exposure to repeated flooding in India?
1. Criss-cross canal irrigation network
2. Deforestation in catchment areas of rivers
3. Rapid siltation of riverbeds
4. Flood plains used for agriculture
Select the correct answer:
✅ Official Answer: (d) All four are correct
This PYQ directly connects land degradation to flooding — showing how multiple land-related causes compound each other: 1 ✅ Canal irrigation networks: Criss-crossing canals can impede natural drainage during floods, trap water, and delay discharge — worsening flood retention. 2 ✅ Deforestation: Forests in river catchments absorb rainfall, slow runoff, hold soil. Deforestation → increased runoff volume and speed → more water reaching rivers faster → floods. Himalayan deforestation → increased flooding in plains — the classic mechanism behind India’s worsening flood situation. 3 ✅ Rapid siltation of riverbeds: When deforestation causes erosion, eroded sediment flows into rivers → siltation raises river beds → less capacity to carry water → rivers overflow more easily at lower flood levels. The Kosi, Ganga, and Brahmaputra are increasingly silted. 4 ✅ Flood plains used for agriculture: Natural flood plains are buffer zones that absorb and hold excess water. When used for agriculture/habitation, they lose this buffer capacity → more flooding damage. Encroachment of flood plains is both a cause of increased flood damage AND a consequence of inadequate land use planning — connecting land degradation to disaster risk.
Assess the severity of land degradation in India and evaluate the effectiveness of India’s national and international commitments to achieve Land Degradation Neutrality by 2030. [Mains 250 words]
For Prelims based on same topic — Which of the following correctly describes “Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN)”?
✅ Answer: (c) — LDN = No net loss of healthy, productive land through balance of degradation and restoration
Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN) is a carefully defined concept: it does NOT mean eliminating all degradation (that’s impossible given economic pressures). It means achieving a balance — wherever land degrades in one place, an equal area is restored somewhere else, so the overall global/national stock of healthy, productive land remains stable (net zero change). Key elements: (1) Avoid new degradation where possible. (2) Reduce existing degradation through sustainable land management. (3) Restore already-degraded land to compensate for unavoidable degradation. This is analogous to “Net Zero” in climate policy. SDG 15.3 mandates achieving LDN by 2030. India’s 26 mha restoration target is its contribution to LDN. Mains answer structure: Severity — 97.85 mha (29.7% TGA), waterlogging (30 mha), Chambal ravines, Rajasthan 68.3% desertifying, common land loss 19%, grassland loss 31%, Aravalli threats. Commitments — UNCCD signatory 1996, 26 mha by 2030, Paris NDC 2.5 Bn tonne carbon sink, Bonn Challenge, COP-14 host. Effectiveness — 18.94 mha restored (PIB 2024 = 72.8% of target), Soil Health Cards, PMKSY, Aravalli Green Wall, GIM. Challenges — economic pressure on land, weak enforcement of land use rules, climate change accelerating desertification, funding gap.
❓ Frequently Asked Questions
The Aravalli range is one of the world’s oldest fold mountains — formed in the Proterozoic era (~2.5 billion years ago), predating even the Himalayas. Its ecological importance for India is vastly underappreciated: (1) Desert barrier: The Aravallis are the primary natural barrier preventing the Thar Desert from expanding eastward into Delhi, Jaipur, Gurugram, and the fertile northern plains. Without Aravallis, dust storms and desertification would engulf much of northwest India. Already, at 12 points in Haryana, breaches in the Aravalli range have allowed desert conditions to penetrate (Wildlife Institute of India report). (2) Groundwater recharge: The Aravallis are a fractured aquifer — their weathered rocks allow rainfall to percolate and recharge groundwater. Degraded Aravallis → reduced recharge → falling groundwater levels in Haryana and Rajasthan (already 1–1.5 m/year decline). (3) River sources: Several rivers originate from or are fed by Aravallis: Banas, Sahibi (tributaries of Yamuna), Luni (Rann of Kutch), Chambal, Sabarmati. Their degradation → these rivers weaken. (4) Monsoon regulation: During monsoon, Aravallis gently guide clouds eastward towards Shimla and Nainital, feeding sub-Himalayan rivers and the north Indian plains. They also protect plains from harsh Central Asian winter winds. (5) Biodiversity: Aravallis host endemic species and support multiple ecosystems. The Sariska Tiger Reserve sits in the Aravallis. (6) Carbon sink: Restored Aravallis contribute directly to India’s Paris Agreement target of 2.5 billion tonne CO₂ carbon sink by 2030. The Aravalli Green Wall Project addresses all these functions simultaneously — making it one of India’s most strategically important environmental initiatives.
Legacy IAS — UPSC Civil Services Coaching, Bangalore |
Sources: UNCCD COP-16 Riyadh (December 2-13, 2024) — official UNCCD website; PWOnlyIAS — COP16 UNCCD Land Degradation (Dec 2024); Adda247 — India at UNCCD COP16 (Dec 3, 2024); PIB — India’s 26 mha target, 18.94 mha restored (2024); Rau’s IAS — Aravalli Green Wall Project (PM Modi planted sapling June 5, 2025); Insights IAS — Aravalli Green Wall at COP16; IORA Ecological ($12 billion pledged at COP16); Drishti IAS — Aravalli Green Wall Project; ClearIAS — Aravalli Green Wall; PIB — Aravalli Green Wall Project launch (March 2023); ISRO SAC — Desertification and Land Degradation Atlas 2018-19 (97.85 mha = 29.7% TGA); Drishti IAS — India’s E-waste management; MoEFCC — Green India Mission revised 2025 (₹12,190 crore).
