Spread and Decline of Buddhism in India
Comprehensive UPSC Study Material — Prelims · GS-I Mains · Essay · Interview
1. Introduction & UPSC Relevance
Buddhism, founded by Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha) in the 6th century BCE, emerged as a powerful heterodox movement challenging Brahmanical orthodoxy. From its origins in the Gangetic plains to its pan-Asian expansion—and eventual near-disappearance from the Indian subcontinent—the story of Buddhism is one of the most frequently tested narratives in UPSC examinations.
Why This Topic Matters for UPSC
- Prelims: Direct factual questions on sects, councils, patronage, terminologies, and geographic spread.
- GS-I Mains: Analytical questions on causes of spread and decline, role of the Sangha, and comparison with Jainism.
- Essay: Themes of social reform, religious tolerance, cultural diffusion.
- Interview: Nuanced understanding of India’s philosophical heritage, Dr. Ambedkar’s Navayana movement.
Timeline Overview (6th century BCE – 12th century CE)
2. Sects of Buddhism
A. Origin of Buddhist Sects
The first major split in Buddhism occurred at the Second Buddhist Council at Vaishali (c. 383 BCE). The dispute centred on ten points of Vinaya (monastic discipline). The orthodox monks who upheld strict adherence to original rules became the Sthaviravadins (Elders), while the progressive group advocating relaxation of rules became the Mahasanghikas (Great Assembly).
Vaishali, c. 383 BCE
10 Vinaya rules
(Orthodox / Elders)
(Progressive / Great Assembly)
B. Major Sects of Buddhism (Detailed)
🔹 Hinayana (Theravada) — “The Lesser Vehicle”
- Core Beliefs: Strict adherence to the original teachings of the Buddha. Emphasises individual salvation (Arhat ideal). Does not accept the divinity of Buddha — treats him as a guide and teacher.
- Sacred Texts: Pali Canon (Tipitaka) — Vinaya Pitaka (monastic rules), Sutta Pitaka (discourses), Abhidhamma Pitaka (philosophy).
- Concept of Buddha: Historical human being, not a god. No image worship in the earliest phase; used symbols (Bodhi Tree, Wheel, Footprints, Stupa).
- Areas of Spread: Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos.
- Patronage: Ashoka (Third Council), Dutthagamani (Sri Lanka).
🔹 Mahayana — “The Greater Vehicle”
- Doctrinal Changes: Salvation is universal, not limited to monks. Concept of Shunyata (Emptiness) developed by Nagarjuna. Idealism (Vijnanavada) introduced by Asanga and Vasubandhu.
- Bodhisattva Concept: A being who delays personal Nirvana to help all sentient beings attain salvation — key departure from the Arhat ideal.
- Image Worship: Buddha elevated to the status of God. Image worship, elaborate rituals, and devotional practices introduced. Gandhara and Mathura schools of art developed Buddhist iconography.
- Areas of Spread: China, Korea, Japan, Vietnam, Tibet, Central Asia.
- Patronage: Kanishka (Fourth Council), Harsha, Pala dynasty.
🔹 Vajrayana — “The Diamond / Thunderbolt Vehicle”
- Tantric Practices: Emerged around 7th–8th century CE as an esoteric offshoot of Mahayana. Incorporated mantras (sacred chants), mudras (hand gestures), mandalas (cosmic diagrams), and ritual practices.
- Mantras & Rituals: Emphasis on the guru–disciple relationship. Believed in the possibility of attaining Buddhahood in a single lifetime through esoteric practices.
- Areas of Spread: Tibet (Tibetan Buddhism), Nepal, Bhutan, Mongolia, parts of Eastern India (Bengal, Bihar under the Palas).
🔹 Zen Buddhism (Chan / Son)
- Meditation Focus: De-emphasises doctrinal study and textual authority. Core practice is zazen (seated meditation). Aims for sudden enlightenment (satori) through direct experience.
- Regional Variations: Originated as Chan in China (Bodhidharma, 6th century CE), became Son in Korea, and Zen in Japan. Influenced East Asian art, culture, and aesthetics profoundly.
🔹 Navayana — “Neo-Buddhism”
- Modern Reinterpretation: Pioneered by Dr. B. R. Ambedkar (1891–1956). Rejects traditional metaphysical elements like karma and rebirth as popularly understood.
- Social Justice Orientation: Frames Buddhism as a tool for social liberation and annihilation of caste. Core text: The Buddha and His Dhamma (1957).
- Indian Context: On 14 October 1956, Dr. Ambedkar led a mass conversion of approximately 600,000 people at Nagpur. Navayana Buddhism is practised primarily among Scheduled Castes in Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, and other states.
📊 Comparison Table: Major Buddhist Sects
| Feature | Hinayana (Theravada) | Mahayana | Vajrayana | Zen | Navayana |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Period of Rise | After 2nd Council (4th c. BCE) | 1st–2nd century CE | 7th–8th century CE | 6th century CE (China) | 1956 CE (India) |
| Goal | Individual salvation (Arhat) | Universal salvation (Bodhisattva) | Buddhahood in one lifetime | Sudden enlightenment (Satori) | Social liberation & equality |
| Buddha Status | Human teacher | Divine / God-like | Cosmic / Esoteric | Beyond conceptualisation | Social reformer |
| Key Practice | Vipassana meditation | Devotion & philosophical inquiry | Mantras, mudras, mandalas | Zazen (seated meditation) | Social action & education |
| Language | Pali | Sanskrit | Sanskrit / Tibetan | Chinese / Japanese / Korean | Modern Indian languages |
| Image Worship | No (symbols used) | Yes (elaborate iconography) | Yes (esoteric imagery) | Minimal | Symbolic only |
| Key Text | Pali Tipitaka | Sutras (Lotus, Perfection of Wisdom) | Tantras | Platform Sutra, Koans | The Buddha & His Dhamma |
| Primary Region | Sri Lanka, SE Asia | China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam | Tibet, Nepal, Mongolia | Japan, China, Korea | India (Maharashtra, UP) |
| Patron / Key Figure | Ashoka | Kanishka, Nagarjuna | Padmasambhava, Pala kings | Bodhidharma | Dr. B. R. Ambedkar |
3. Spread of Buddhism in India & Beyond
A. During Buddha’s Lifetime
- Regions: Magadha (heartland — Rajagriha, Nalanda), Kosala (Shravasti), Vaishali, Kashi (Sarnath). These regions in the middle Gangetic plain formed the cradle of Buddhism.
- Social Acceptance: Buddhism attracted Kshatriyas (including rulers like Bimbisara and Prasenjit), merchants (Setthi class), and lower castes disillusioned with Brahmanical rituals and the rigid varna system. The admission of women into the Sangha (on Ananda’s request) broadened its social base.
B. Factors Responsible for the Spread of Buddhism
- Reaction against rigid caste system
- Opposition to costly Vedic rituals
- Appeal to Vaishyas & merchant class
- Inclusion of women and lower castes
- Simple, practical ethical code
- Middle Path — no extreme asceticism
- Non-violence (Ahimsa)
- Rejection of blind faith & superstition
- Bimbisara & Ajatashatru (Magadha)
- Ashoka — missionaries, edicts, councils
- Kanishka — Fourth Council, Mahayana
- Harsha — generous donor, Nalanda
- Organised monastic order
- Democratic functioning
- Educational centres (Nalanda, Vikramashila)
- Social service & community engagement
- Common people’s language
- Made teachings accessible
- Contrast with Brahmanical Sanskrit
- Monks travelled with merchant caravans
- Monasteries along trade routes
- Maritime routes to SE Asia
- Land routes via Central Asia to China
C. Spread of Buddhism Outside India
🌏 Map-Based Flow of Buddhism Beyond India
| Region | Route / Medium | Key Period | Sect | Key Agents |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sri Lanka | Ashoka’s son Mahinda & daughter Sanghamitta via sea | 3rd century BCE | Theravada | Mahinda, Sanghamitta |
| Central Asia | Silk Road (land route via Gandhara, Bactria, Taxila) | 2nd century BCE – 3rd century CE | Mahayana | Kushan rulers, merchants |
| China | Silk Road; later, maritime routes | 1st century CE onwards | Mahayana → Chan (Zen) | Kashyapa Matanga, Bodhidharma, Kumarajiva |
| Southeast Asia | Maritime trade routes via Bay of Bengal | 3rd century BCE – 5th century CE | Theravada & Mahayana | Indian merchants & monks |
| East Asia (Korea, Japan) | Via China (overland and sea) | 4th–6th century CE | Mahayana → Zen / Pure Land | Chinese missionaries |
| Tibet | From India via Nepal and Bengal | 7th century CE onwards | Vajrayana | Padmasambhava, Atisha |
4. Role of the Sangha
High Mains RelevanceThe Sangha (monastic order) was the institutional backbone of Buddhism. It was one of the Triratna (Three Jewels) — Buddha, Dhamma, Sangha — and played an indispensable role in preserving, transmitting, and spreading the teachings.
| Feature | Details | Significance |
|---|---|---|
| Origin | Established by the Buddha himself after the first five disciples (Panchavargiya monks) joined at Sarnath | Provided organisational structure absent in other Shramana movements |
| Organisation | Open to all castes and classes. Two orders: Bhikkhus (monks) and Bhikkhunis (nuns). Governed by the Vinaya Pitaka | Radical social experiment — caste-free community |
| Membership Rules | Minimum age: 15 years. Parental consent for minors. No criminals, debtors, or soldiers. Two-stage ordination: Pabbajja (going forth) → Upasampada (full ordination) | Maintained discipline and credibility of the order |
| Role of Women | Bhikkhuni Sangha established after Mahapajapati Gotami (Buddha’s foster mother) ordained, on Ananda’s persuasion. Subject to 8 additional rules (Garudhammas) | Progressive for the era, though with patriarchal limitations |
| Daily Routine | Meditation, alms collection (Pindapata), study, communal discussion, manual work. Monks owned only 8 necessities (Ashtaparikara) | Simple living reinforced Buddhist ethical ideals |
| Educational Role | Monasteries became centres of learning — Nalanda, Vikramashila, Taxila, Valabhi, Odantapuri. Taught logic, grammar, medicine alongside Dhamma | Buddhism drove India’s first large-scale institutional education system |
| Democratic Functioning | Decisions by consensus or majority vote. Fortnightly assembly (Uposatha) for confession. Pavarana ceremony (invitation for criticism) at the end of Vassa (rainy retreat) | Considered a precursor to republican democratic practices; influenced polity and governance |
5. Causes for the Decline of Buddhism in India
Top Mains Question📊 Cause–Effect Framework: Decline of Buddhism
Internal Factors
- Corruption of the Sangha: Over time, monasteries became wealthy, monks indulged in luxury, and the discipline prescribed in the Vinaya Pitaka weakened.
- Absorption of Tantric & ritualistic practices: Vajrayana introduced practices (mantras, mandalas, ritual worship) that blurred the distinction between Buddhism and Hinduism. The original simplicity of the teachings was lost.
- Schisms & sectarianism: Internal splits (Hinayana vs. Mahayana vs. Vajrayana) weakened organisational unity.
- Use of Sanskrit: Mahayana’s shift from Pali to Sanskrit distanced Buddhism from the common people, the very constituency that had fuelled its growth.
External Factors
- Brahmanical Revival: Shankaracharya (8th century CE) and the Bhakti movement revitalised Hinduism. Hindu philosophers borrowed Buddhist ideas (e.g., monasticism, Advaita) while attacking Buddhist positions.
- Hindu absorption strategy: Buddha was incorporated as the 9th avatar of Vishnu, undermining Buddhism’s separate identity.
- Loss of Royal Patronage: Post-Harsha (7th century CE), Rajput and other regional Hindu dynasties withdrew support. Patronage shifted to Brahmanical temples and institutions.
Political Changes & Invasions
- Hunas (5th–6th century CE): Mihirakula’s persecution damaged Buddhist centres in the northwest.
- Turkish / Afghan invasions (12th–13th century CE): Bakhtiyar Khalji’s destruction of Nalanda (1193 CE), Vikramashila, and Odantapuri dealt the fatal blow. Monks were killed or fled to Nepal and Tibet.
Decay of Monasteries
- Buddhism was monastery-centric. Unlike Hinduism, it lacked a strong household or village-level religious infrastructure. Once monasteries were destroyed, there was no grassroots structure to sustain the faith.
Language Limitations
- By the late period, Buddhist scholarship had become highly specialised and inaccessible to lay followers. The gap between the intellectual elite in monasteries and the common populace widened.
(Corruption, Tantrism, Schisms)
(Shankara, Bhakti, Absorption)
(Post-Harsha decline)
(Nalanda destroyed, 1193 CE)
from India by 13th c. CE
6. Terminologies Associated with Buddhism
Prelims Must-Know| Term | Meaning | Associated Sect / Context |
|---|---|---|
| Bodhisattva | A being who postpones own Nirvana to help others achieve enlightenment | Mahayana (central concept) |
| Four Noble Truths | Dukkha (suffering), Samudaya (cause), Nirodha (cessation), Magga (path to cessation) | All sects (foundational) |
| Eightfold Path | Right View, Intention, Speech, Action, Livelihood, Effort, Mindfulness, Concentration | All sects (Magga) |
| Triratna (Three Jewels) | Buddha (teacher), Dhamma (teaching), Sangha (order) | All sects |
| Anicca | Impermanence — nothing is permanent | All sects (core doctrine) |
| Anatta (Anatman) | No-Self — denial of a permanent soul | All sects (distinguishes Buddhism from Hinduism) |
| Sangha | Monastic community of monks and nuns | All sects |
| Dhamma (Dharma) | The teachings / cosmic law as taught by the Buddha | All sects |
| Vipassana | Insight meditation — observing reality as it is | Theravada (primary practice) |
| Zazen | Seated meditation central to Zen practice | Zen Buddhism |
| Pavarana | Ceremony at end of Vassa where monks invite criticism from fellow monks | All sects (Vinaya practice) |
| Nirvana | Extinction of desire and suffering; ultimate liberation | All sects |
| Pratityasamutpada | Dependent Origination — all phenomena arise in dependence upon causes and conditions | All sects (core philosophical concept) |
| Shunyata | Emptiness — all phenomena lack inherent existence | Mahayana (Nagarjuna’s Madhyamaka) |
| Mandala | Geometric cosmic diagram used in meditation and ritual | Vajrayana |
7. Interlinkages & Further Reading
Explore related topics on Legacy IAS for a comprehensive understanding:
🎯 UPSC Exam Orientation — Practice Questions
Prelims-Style MCQs
Q1. Consider the following statements:
- The Second Buddhist Council was held at Vaishali under the patronage of King Kalashoka.
- The split at this council produced the Sthaviravadins and the Mahasanghikas.
- The Fourth Buddhist Council was held at Pataliputra under King Kanishka.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- 1 and 2 only
- 2 and 3 only
- 1 and 3 only
- 1, 2 and 3
Statement 3 is incorrect — the Fourth Council was held at Kundalvana (Kashmir), not Pataliputra. Pataliputra was the venue of the Third Council under Ashoka.
Q2. Consider the following statements about Mahayana Buddhism:
- It emphasises the Bodhisattva ideal over the Arhat ideal.
- It uses Pali as its primary scriptural language.
- Nagarjuna’s concept of Shunyata (Emptiness) is central to its philosophy.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- 1 only
- 1 and 3 only
- 2 and 3 only
- 1, 2 and 3
Statement 2 is incorrect — Mahayana primarily uses Sanskrit, not Pali. Pali is the scriptural language of Theravada (Hinayana).
Q3. The Pavarana ceremony in Buddhism is:
- A ceremony of ordination for new monks
- An invitation by monks to fellow monks to point out their faults, held at the end of the rainy retreat
- A ceremony of confession held on every full moon day
- A ritual of image worship introduced by Mahayana Buddhism
Pavarana is held at the end of Vassa (rainy retreat). Monks invite other monks to criticise them — it embodies the Sangha’s democratic and self-corrective spirit.
Mains Practice Questions
Q. “The Sangha was the institutional backbone of Buddhism. Discuss the organisation, functioning, and role of the Buddhist Sangha in the spread of Buddhism.”
Approach Hints: Define Sangha → Origin (Sarnath) → Organisational structure (Bhikkhus, Bhikkhunis, Vinaya) → Democratic practices (Uposatha, Pavarana) → Educational role (Nalanda, Vikramashila) → Role of women → Conclusion linking Sangha’s decline to Buddhism’s decline.
Q. “The decline of Buddhism in India was not caused by a single factor but was the result of a complex interplay of internal decay, external competition, and political upheaval.” Critically examine.
Approach Hints: Introduction (Buddhism’s long dominance) → Internal factors (corruption, Tantrism, schisms, language shift) → External factors (Shankaracharya’s revival, Bhakti, absorption as Vishnu avatar) → Political factors (loss of patronage, invasions, Nalanda’s destruction) → Counter-view (Buddhism didn’t entirely die — Navayana revival, continued in border regions) → Balanced conclusion.
❓ Frequently Asked Questions
Why did Buddhism decline in India?
Buddhism’s decline was caused by a combination of internal and external factors. Internally, monastic corruption, absorption of Tantric rituals, sectarian splits, and a shift from Pali to Sanskrit weakened the movement. Externally, the Brahmanical revival (led by Shankaracharya and the Bhakti movement), Buddha’s incorporation as a Vishnu avatar, loss of royal patronage after Harsha, and the devastating Turkish invasions that destroyed Nalanda and Vikramashila (12th–13th century CE) collectively led to Buddhism’s near-disappearance from India.
What is the difference between Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhism?
Hinayana (Theravada) focuses on individual salvation through the Arhat ideal, considers Buddha a human teacher, uses Pali, and avoids image worship. Mahayana emphasises universal salvation through the Bodhisattva ideal, elevates Buddha to divine status, uses Sanskrit, practises image worship, and incorporates philosophical schools like Madhyamaka (Nagarjuna) and Yogachara (Asanga). Hinayana spread to Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia, while Mahayana spread to East and Central Asia.
What was the role of Ashoka in the spread of Buddhism?
Emperor Ashoka (c. 268–232 BCE) was Buddhism’s greatest royal patron. After the Kalinga War, he embraced Buddhism and took several steps: convened the Third Buddhist Council at Pataliputra, inscribed Dhamma edicts across his empire, sent missionaries abroad (Mahinda and Sanghamitta to Sri Lanka, missions to Central Asia, the Hellenistic world), built stupas and viharas, and appointed Dhamma Mahamatras (officers of righteousness). His state support transformed Buddhism from a regional movement into a pan-Asian religion.
Is Buddhism extinct in India?
No. While Buddhism virtually disappeared from mainstream India by the 13th century CE, it survived in border regions (Ladakh, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh) and among certain tribal communities. A major revival occurred in 1956 when Dr. B. R. Ambedkar led a mass conversion movement (Navayana Buddhism). As per the 2011 Census, India has approximately 8.4 million Buddhists (0.7% of the population), concentrated mainly in Maharashtra and parts of Uttar Pradesh. India also remains home to key Buddhist pilgrimage sites (Bodh Gaya, Sarnath, Kushinagar).
What is Vajrayana Buddhism?
Vajrayana (“Diamond / Thunderbolt Vehicle”) is a Tantric school that emerged from Mahayana Buddhism around the 7th–8th century CE. It incorporates esoteric practices — mantras, mudras, mandalas, and elaborate rituals — and emphasises the guru–disciple relationship. It believes enlightenment can be achieved in a single lifetime. Vajrayana became dominant in Tibet (through Padmasambhava), Nepal, Bhutan, and Mongolia. In India, it was patronised by the Pala dynasty of Bengal and Bihar.
What are the Four Noble Truths of Buddhism?
The Four Noble Truths form the core of the Buddha’s first sermon (Dhammachakkappavattana Sutta) at Sarnath: (1) Dukkha — Life involves suffering; (2) Samudaya — Suffering is caused by desire (Tanha); (3) Nirodha — Suffering can be ended by extinguishing desire; (4) Magga — The path to end suffering is the Noble Eightfold Path. These truths are foundational to all Buddhist sects.
What was the significance of the Buddhist Sangha?
The Sangha was the organised monastic order that served as the institutional vehicle for Buddhism. It was open to all castes, functioned democratically (decisions by consensus, Uposatha assemblies, Pavarana ceremonies), and evolved into major educational centres (Nalanda, Vikramashila, Taxila). The Sangha preserved Buddhist texts, trained monks who became missionaries, and provided a model of egalitarian community life. Its decline — through corruption and destruction by invaders — was a primary factor in Buddhism’s disappearance from India.
