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Current Affairs 23 July 2025

  1. Redeeming India’s nuclear power promise
  2. How different constitutional drafts imagined India
  3. MiG-21: End of an Era
  4. Apache AH-64E Induction: A Major Leap for Indian Army
  5. Systemic Failure in Ensuring Safety of Sewer Workers
  6. Urban India 2030–2050: A Call for Action


India’s Nuclear Energy Pivot: Budget 2025–26 at a Glance

Focus AreaBudget Announcements
Installed CapacityTarget of 100 GW by 2047 (from 8.18 GW today)
Small Modular Reactors (SMRs)₹20,000 crore allocated to develop 5 indigenous SMRs by 2033
Private Sector EntryLegislative reforms to allow private and foreign investment
Legal Reforms PendingAmendments to Atomic Energy Act, 1962 and CLNDA, 2010

Relevance: GS 3(Nuclear Energy)

The Historical Trajectory: From Vision to Isolation to Reengagement

MilestoneDetails
1956Apsara, Asia’s first research reactor commissioned
1963Work begins at Tarapore (first nuclear power reactors in Asia)
1974Peaceful Nuclear Explosion → Global isolation
1998Pokhran-II → Strategic negotiations begin
2008NSG waiver allows India to re-enter the global nuclear market
2010CLNDA introduced — slowed foreign participation due to supplier liability clause
2025Shift toward private sector and international partnerships for scaling up nuclear power

Why Nuclear Now? Rationale Behind the Shift

Strategic GoalRole of Nuclear Power
Energy SecurityProvides stable baseload power unlike intermittent renewables
DecarbonisationLow-carbon option to meet Net Zero by 2070
Economic GrowthPowering GDP rise from $4 trillion to $35 trillion by 2047
Urbanisation & DevelopmentIndia’s per capita power consumption (1,208 kWh) lags far behind China (4,600) and the U.S. (12,500)

Renewable energy (solar, wind, hydro) accounts for ~50% of capacity but only ~20–25% of actual energy generation due to intermittency.

Reforms on the Horizon: Legal, Regulatory, and Financial

Atomic Energy Act, 1962 – Proposed Changes

IssueReform Needed
Monopoly of NPCILAllow private ownership & operation under safeguards
Fuel Supply & Waste ResponsibilityClear allocation between operator and supplier
Foreign InvestmentFDI up to 49%, with safeguards on Indian control

CLNDA, 2010 – Proposed Amendments

ClauseProblemReform
Section 17(b)Makes suppliers liable for accidents—deterring foreign partnersLimit or re-interpret supplier liability to enable partnerships

Tariff & Commercial Disputes

 Current Model – Under Atomic Energy Act — Tariff notified by govt
 Dispute Example  – NPCIL vs Gujarat Urja Vikas Nigam led to conflicting verdicts
 Reform Direction – Move to Electricity Act framework with levelised cost model under CERC

Regulatory Framework

BodyCurrent Status
AERBTechnically autonomous, but under DAE and not a legal entity
Reform NeedEstablish an independent, statutory regulator (Bill lapsed in 2011)

Institutional Strategy: Three-Track Expansion Plan

TrackObjective
 Standardised SMRsUse 220 MW PHWR design for scalable, indigenous Small Modular Reactors
Accelerate 700 MW PHWRsFast-track land acquisition, licensing, and local supply chains
 Revive Global PartnershipsRestart stalled talks with France (EDF) and U.S. (Westinghouse, GE-Hitachi)

Financing & Incentivising Nuclear Power

ChallengeDetails
High capital costs~$2M/MW for nuclear vs <$1M/MW for coal
Lifecycle costsNuclear plants last 50–60 years but need funds for decommissioning and waste
ClassificationNot yet considered “renewable”, hence not eligible for green finance
  • Green financing classification
  • Long-term Power Purchase Agreements (PPAs)
  • Viability Gap Funding (VGF)
  • Special tax incentives for nuclear infrastructure

Private Sector Involvement: Opportunities and Roadblocks

CompanyPotential Role
Tata, Adani, Reliance, VedantaBuild, operate, or co-finance new reactors
NTPC-NPCIL JVFour 700 MW units at Mahi Banswara, Rajasthan
REC JVNew financial partnership to support nuclear infrastructure

JVs with public sector units already underway — but scaling to 100 GW will require private and foreign players.

Global Momentum in Nuclear Energy

EventSignificance
COP28 (Dubai, 2023)Declaration to triple global nuclear energy
IAEA–World Bank 2024 AgreementNuclear backed as key for developing economies
Ajay Banga (World Bank President)Called nuclear essential for base-load power in modern economies

Conclusion: What India Must Now Do

India’s nuclear renaissance must be decisive, comprehensive, and inclusive. The key pillars:

  1. Legislative reform to allow private participation while ensuring safety, accountability, and public trust
  2. Global partnerships based on updated liability and financing frameworks
  3. Institutional overhaul with an independent nuclear regulator
  4. Green classification and incentives for nuclear as low-carbon energy
  5. Fast-tracked projects combining scale (700 MW) with modular innovation (SMRs)

Nuclear power is India’s best shot at clean, reliable base-load electricity, essential for a high-growth, low-carbon future.



Context: India’s Constitutional Journey Before 1950

Between 1895 and 1948, at least five major constitutional drafts were proposed by diverse political actors—liberals, radicals, socialists, and cultural nationalists. These drafts reflected competing visions of sovereignty, democracy, federalism, economic justice, and identity.

Relevance : GS 2(Constitution and Polity)

The Five Key Drafts: Origins & Philosophical Anchors

YearDraftAuthor/GroupIdeological Leaning
1895Constitution of India BillEarly nationalists (e.g., B.G. Tilak)Liberal constitutionalism
1944Constitution of Free IndiaM.N. Roy, Radical Democratic PartyRadical humanist, participatory democracy
1944Hindusthan Free State ActHindu Mahasabha (right-wing nationalists)Cultural nationalism + liberal guarantees
1946Gandhian Constitution for Free IndiaShriman Narayan Agarwal (foreword by Gandhi)Village-centric decentralism, moral republicanism
1948Socialist Party DraftJayaprakash NarayanDemocratic socialism

Comparative Thematic Analysis

1. Democracy & Sovereignty

  • 1895 Bill: Emphasised civil liberties and representative democracy but within British dominion.
  • Roy’s Draft (1944): Participatory democracy with right to revolt and citizens’ committees—an anti-elitist model.
  • Hindusthan Free State: Asserted unitary sovereignty but with democratic elements like elections and judicial review.
  • Gandhian Draft: Sovereignty vested in self-sufficient villages, led by moral authority.
  • Socialist Draft: Unicameral legislature based on class representation (workers, peasants, intellectuals)—radical departure from liberal democracy.

2.  Civil Liberties & Rights

DraftCivil LibertiesSocio-Economic Rights
1895 BillStrong (speech, property, equality)Absent
Roy (1944)Strong + Right to revoltBinding, justiciable socio-economic rights
Hindusthan Free StateStrong religious freedoms, anti-discriminationMinimal economic guarantees
Gandhian (1946)Focus on duties/community over formal rightsRural economic self-reliance, minimal state role
Socialist (1948)Civil liberties secondaryCore focus: Economic democracy & equality

Roy’s draft uniquely made socio-economic rights enforceable, unlike the 1950 Constitution’s non-justiciable Directive Principles.

3. Centralisation vs Decentralisation

  • Roy & Gandhi: Advocated decentralisation but differed:
    • Roy: Federalism + institutional oversight.
    • Gandhi: Gram swaraj (village autonomy) rooted in moral norms.
  • Socialists & Hindusthan Draft: Supported centralised control for economic restructuring or national cohesion.
  • 1895: Silent on federal structure, assuming British-style parliamentary setup.

The tension between unity and local autonomy was central to these early debates.

4. Economic Vision

DraftEconomic Model
GandhianMinimalist, rural self-reliance, trusteeship
RoyDemocratic economic planning, mixed economy
Socialist PartyState socialism, nationalisation, planning commission
Hindusthan DraftSilent on redistribution, strong on cohesion
1895 BillNo mention of economic justice or planning

These drafts represent the full spectrum from agrarian minimalism to radical socialism, anticipating later debates on India’s economic model.

5. Cultural Identity & Secularism

  • Roy & Socialist drafts: Strongly pluralistic and secular.
  • Hindusthan Free State: Advocated one culture/one law, but included explicit religious freedom, no state religion, and caste equality—an ideologically hybrid document.
  • Gandhian: Rooted in Indian traditions, emphasised communal harmony over majoritarianism.
  • 1895 Bill: Avoided identity politics, sticking to a neutral liberal template.

6. Unique & Surprising Features

DraftUnique Element
RoyRight to revolt, participatory oversight via citizens’ committees
GandhianRight to bear arms despite ahimsa orientation
HindusthanRight of secession, blending cultural nationalism with formal secularism
SocialistClass-based legislature, gender equality before independence
1895Early model of liberal rights under imperial framework

Contradictions (e.g., Gandhi’s right to arms) reflect realism amid idealism—showing the complexity of state-building ideologies.

Legacy & Influence on the 1950 Constitution

DraftLegacy in Final Constitution
1895 BillCivil liberties, parliamentary form, separation of powers
Roy’s DraftBill of Rights, decentralisation, participatory federalism
GandhianIdea of Panchayati Raj, trusteeship philosophy (Directive Principles)
Socialist DraftEconomic justice, land reform, welfare state ideas (Directive Principles)
Hindusthan Free StateNational cohesion + formal secularism; not adopted but influenced debates on identity

The 1950 Constitution synthesized diverse ideas — liberal rights, economic justice, decentralisation, and cultural pluralism — though not always in their fullest or radical form.

Conclusion: The Prehistory of the Republic

India’s road to constitutional democracy was not linear. These early drafts:

  • Captured ideological ferment and competing futures
  • Anticipated modern debates on federalism, rights, secularism, and state power
  • Reflected a rich democratic imagination even under colonialism

Though not adopted wholesale, these documents deeply influenced the spirit and substance of India’s final Constitution—testament to the pluralistic and contested origins of Indian republicanism.



Historical Significance

  • India procured over 700 MiG-21 fighter aircraft since the 1960s.
  • Originally from the Soviet Union, many units were domestically produced by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL).
  • Served as the backbone of the IAF’s combat fleet for over 5 decades.

Relevance : GS 3(Defence , Internal Security)

Operational Use & Combat Record

  • Participated in multiple wars:
    • 1971 India-Pakistan War
    • Kargil Conflict (1999)
    • Balakot Airstrikes (2019) – then Wing Commander Abhinandan Varthaman shot down a Pakistani F-16 using a MiG-21 Bison, before being shot down himself.

Accidents & Safety Concerns

MetricValue
Total MiG-21 variants inducted700
Pilots killed in crashes170
Civilians killed in accidents40
Common nickname“Flying Coffin” due to high crash rate

 The MiG-21’s prolonged service and aging design made it a liability despite mid-life upgrades.

Current Status

  • Two squadrons remain (36 aircraft):
    • 23 Squadron “Panthers”
    • No. 3 Squadron “Cobras”
  • Both stationed at Nal Airbase, Rajasthan.

Future Impact

  • After phasing out MiG-21, IAF’s squadron strength will drop to 29 (against the sanctioned strength of 42).
  • This could affect IAF’s full-spectrum deterrence unless new aircraft are inducted swiftly (e.g., Tejas Mk-1A, Rafale, or future AMCA).


Recent Induction

  • On July 23, 2025, Indian Army received first batch of 3 Apache AH-64E helicopters from the U.S. at Hindon Airbase.
  • Induction conducted under Joint Receipt Inspection Protocol before final deployment.

Relevance : GS 3(Internal Security , Defence )

Deployment Plans

  • Will be deployed by Army Aviation Corps in Jodhpur.
  • Focus on Western Front (Pakistan border) and high-altitude warfare (e.g., Ladakh, Siachen).

Strategic Advantages

CapabilityDetails
FirepowerEquipped with Hellfire missiles, Hydra rockets, and 30mm M230 chain gun
AvionicsAdvanced sensors, radar, night-vision, and electronic warfare capabilities
Terrain VersatilityOptimised for high-altitude and all-weather combat operations
AI/ISR IntegrationSupports network-centric warfare and real-time battlefield visibility

The Apache is a combat-proven platform, extensively used in Iraq, Afghanistan, and global theatres.

Modernisation Push

  • India signed a deal in 2020 for 6 Apache helicopters exclusively for the Army (separate from IAF’s 22 Apaches).
  • Apache marks the first heavy-attack helicopter induction for Indian Army aviation.

Strategic Context

  • Boosts independent offensive strike capability for Army, especially in:
    • Anti-armor operations
    • Close air support
    • Border skirmishes with China and Pakistan

Comparative Force Modernisation

FeatureMiG-21Apache AH-64E
Entry into Service19632025 (Indian Army)
RoleSupersonic fighter aircraftHeavy attack helicopter
ManufacturerMikoyan-Gurevich (USSR), HALBoeing (USA)
Retirement StatusPhasing outJust inducted
Technological StatusObsoleteState-of-the-art

Strategic Implications for India

  1. IAF Combat Readiness Challenges
    1. Squadron strength shrinking to 29 vs. required 42.
    1. Urgency to expedite Tejas Mk-1A and Rafale deliveries.
    1. Risks during a two-front conflict scenario.
  • Army Air Power Autonomy
    • Apache enhances Army’s strike power without relying on IAF.
    • Boosts capability in mountain warfare and border conflicts.
    • Strengthens India’s response posture in Western and Northern theatres.
  • Indigenisation vs. Imports
    • While Apaches are imported, Indian push for Atmanirbhar Bharat continues with HAL’s Light Combat Helicopter (LCH) and Rudra.
    • Balanced approach needed: Strategic imports + indigenous development.

Conclusion

The MiG-21 phase-out and Apache induction together represent a generational shift in Indian military aviation:

  • A legacy platform exits after decades of both glory and tragedy.
  • A modern, lethal system enters, enabling new operational doctrines for the Army.

These developments reflect India’s broader military modernisation drive — but also highlight critical gaps (especially in IAF’s force levels) that must be addressed swiftly to maintain credible deterrence.



Over 90% of sewer-related deaths in India (2022–23) occurred without the use of any safety gear, reflecting a grim failure of institutional safeguards and persistent hazardous manual cleaning practices despite legal bans on manual scavenging.

Relevance : GS 2(Social Justice)

Data Snapshot: Scale of the Problem

MetricValue
Total hazardous cleaning deaths analysed54 deaths
Time Period Covered2022–2023
Districts Covered17 districts
States/UTs Covered8
Total deaths (govt. data)150 deaths
Deaths without any safety gear49 out of 54 (90.7%)
Deaths with minimal PPE (gloves/gumboots)5 cases
Deaths where mechanical cleaning gear was used2 cases only
Deaths with safety training prior to work1 case only
Consent not taken before work27 cases
Consent taken but without counselling18 cases

 

Structural & Legal Context

Legal Provisions

  • Manual Scavenging is outlawed under:
    • Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act, 2013
  • Hazardous cleaning without safety gear is illegal under:
    • Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers Rules, 2013
    • The MS Rules, 2013 require:
      • Protective equipment
      • Mechanised tools
      • Safety training
      • Consent and risk communication

Institutional Lapses: Social Audit Insights

1. PPE Availability & Equipment Readiness

  • In 47 of 54 deaths, no mechanized equipment or safety gear was available.
  • Only two instances reported presence of safety equipment.
  • Only one case showed safety training was provided.
  • In 45 cases, concerned agencies had no equipment readiness.

Reflects administrative negligence and token compliance with safety norms.

2. Consent & Worker Awareness

  • No consent in 27 cases.
  • In 18 cases where written consent was taken, no counselling on risks was provided.
  • Indicates uninformed and coerced participation in hazardous work.

3. Hiring Patterns: Exploitative Structures

Hiring TypeNo. of Cases
Personally/Individually contracted38
Government agency employed5
Public Sector Unit but subcontracted to private3

Shows rampant outsourcing and informalisation, diluting accountability.

4. Post-Death Response: Poor Awareness Efforts

  • Awareness drives conducted only in 7 deaths (Chennai, Kancheepuram, Satara).
  • Indicates reactive rather than preventive approach by authorities.

Policy Update: The NAMASTE Scheme (2023)

Objective:

Eliminate hazardous sewer/septic tank cleaning and ensure dignity and safety for sanitation workers.

Progress (as of July 2025):

MetricValue
Workers identified under NAMASTE84,902
States/UTs covered36
Provided with PPE kits/safety gear~42,000 (just over 50%)

Positive start but coverage is still halfway, training and mechanisation lag behind.

Declarations vs. Ground Reality

  • Govt. claim: Manual scavenging is eliminated.
  • Reality: The same deaths due to manual cleaning of sewers without safety gear indicate persistence of de facto manual scavenging.
  • Mismatch between legal abolition and lived experiences.

Recommendations

Legal & Administrative Reforms

  • Enforce penal liability on contractors and officials under the MS Rules, 2013.
  • Mandate third-party safety audits of all urban local bodies.

Institutional Accountability

  • Make mechanisation mandatory across all ULBs (urban local bodies).
  • Maintain publicly accessible real-time dashboards for death tracking and equipment readiness.

Worker-Centric Reforms

  • Ensure full coverage of PPE kits + training under NAMASTE by 2026.
  • Provide life insurance, health cover, and legal aid to families of victims.

Broader Implications

  • Social Justice Deficit: Marginalised communities, especially Dalits, continue to bear the brunt of sewer deaths.
  • Policy-Implementation Gap: Repeated declarations of ending manual scavenging ring hollow unless backed by institutional transformation and mechanisation.
  • India’s Urban Shame: In a Smart Cities and Swachh Bharat era, manual sewer deaths are a stark contradiction to urban development claims.

Conclusion

Despite strong laws and public schemes like NAMASTE, manual sewer cleaning remains deadly due to:

  • Institutional apathy
  • Informalisation of labour
  • Weak enforcement of safety protocols
  • Poor state capacity in local bodies

The way forward lies not just in legal bans, but in mechanisation, accountability, and dignity for sanitation workers. Until then, the phrase “manual scavenging has been eliminated” will remain a bureaucratic illusion.



Key Highlights of the Report

  • Prepared by: World Bank in collaboration with Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA).
  • Title: Towards Resilient and Prosperous Cities in India.
  • Main Forecasts:
    • By 2050, India’s urban population to reach 951 million.
    • By 2030, cities to generate 70% of all new employment.
    • Estimated investment needed: $2.4 trillion by 2050 to make cities climate-resilient.
    • If cities don’t adapt, annual flood-related losses may reach:
      • $5 billion by 2030
      • $30 billion by 2050

Relevance : GS 1(Society ) , GS 2(Social Issues)

Urban Resilience Challenges

1. Rising Urban Climate Risks

  • Urban India faces two major shocks:
    • Flooding
    • Extreme heat
  • Study of 10 major Indian cities (1983–2016) shows:
    • 71% increase in dangerous heat events.
    • Urban Heat Island Effect: Cities get hotter at night due to concrete and asphalt trapping heat.

2. Concrete Urbanization Worsens Flooding

  • Increased construction limits rainwater absorption.
  • Cities growing in flood-prone areas without risk adaptation.
  • Heat-related deaths may exceed 3 lakh per year by 2050 if unaddressed.

Governance & 74th Constitutional Amendment Issues

  • 74th Amendment (1992): Provided autonomy to Urban Local Bodies (ULBs).
  • Problem: Many states have not fully implemented it.
  • Cities with greater decision-making autonomy have:
    • Mobilized more resources.
    • Monetized assets better.
    • Shown higher accountability.
  • World Bank recommends devolution of power to local governments for better urban resilience.

Key Recommendations from the Report

  1. National & State-Level Reforms:
    1. Improve risk assessments.
    1. Mobilize private investments.
    1. Set urban resilience standards.
    1. Create a financing roadmap.
  • Local Interventions:
    • Urban greening, cool roofs, early/late work shifts to beat heat.
    • Resilient infrastructure, particularly in high-risk flood zones.
  • Financial Needs:
    • $150 billion needed for flood resilience in next 15 years alone.

Policy Implications for India

  • Cities are economic growth engines but increasingly vulnerable.
  • Climate adaptation must be mainstreamed in urban planning, especially in Tier-1 and Tier-2 cities.
  • Implementation of the 74th Amendment is key to empower cities.
  • Urban resilience needs to be viewed as an investment, not a cost.

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