Current Affairs 25 September 2024

CONTENTS

1. Supreme Court Ruling Strengthens POCSO Act Enforcement
2. Union Government Releases 2022 Atrocities Report
3. PM Modi Speaks at UN Summit on Multilateral Solutions
4. National Green Tribunal
5. International Big Cat Alliance
6. Fjords
7. Barak Bhuban wildlife sanctuary

Supreme Court Ruling Strengthens POCSO Act Enforcement

Context:

The Supreme Court of India has recently strengthened the enforcement of the Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act, 2012, by ruling that watching or possessing sexually explicit material involving minors is illegal, irrespective of whether it is shared or transmitted. This decision overrides a previous judgment from the Madras High Court, which had concluded that private viewing of child pornography did not constitute an offence if there was no further distribution.

Relevance:

GS II: Polity and Governance

Dimensions of the Article:

1. Supreme Court Ruling on Child Pornography:
2. About Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act, 2012
3. Contention/Criticisms around implementation of POCSO
4. About POCSO Amendment Act 2019

Supreme Court Ruling on Child Pornography:

• Terminology Change:
  • The Supreme Court has urged the Union government to replace the term “child pornography” with “child sexual exploitative and abuse material” (CSEAM), to better reflect the nature of abuse and exploitation.
• Importance of the Change:
  • The term pornography often implies consensual adult activities, which is not accurate in cases of child abuse and exploitation.

Expansion of Section 15 of the POCSO Act, 2012:

• Stricter Interpretation:
  • The SC provided a stricter interpretation of the “storage of child pornography” under Section 15 of the POCSO Act, which previously focused on storage for commercial purposes.
  • The new interpretation outlines three key offences under this section.
• Offences Under Section 15:
  1. Section 15(1):
     • Individuals who store or possess child pornography must delete, destroy, or report it. Failure to do so is punishable.
  2. Section 15(2):
     • Possession with the intent to transmit or display (except for reporting) is a chargeable offence.
  3. Section 15(3):
     • Storing child pornography for commercial purposes incurs the most severe penalties.
• Inchoate Offences:
  • The court classified these actions as inchoate offences, which are preparatory steps toward committing a further crime.

Broader Definition of Possession:

• Constructive Possession:
  • The definition of possession now includes constructive possession, where an individual may not physically hold the material but still has control and knowledge over it.
• Example:
  • Watching child pornography online without downloading it is still considered possession.
• Accountability for Links:
  • If a person receives a link to child pornography but does not report it, they can still be held accountable, even if they did not retain the material.

Comprehensive Sex Education:

• Court’s Call for Action:
  • The SC urged the government to promote comprehensive sex education in schools and society to dispel misconceptions and reduce the stigma surrounding sexual health.
• Focus Areas:
  • This education should include themes such as consent, healthy relationships, gender equality, and diversity.

Awareness of the POCSO Act, 2012:

• Sections 43 and 44:
  • The court emphasized the need for the central and state governments, along with the NCPCR, to promote widespread awareness of the POCSO Act.
• Health and Sex Education:
  • An expert committee should develop comprehensive programs to enhance awareness about health, sex education, and the POCSO Act among children.

Support Systems for Victims:

• Psychological and Educational Support:
  • The ruling stressed the need for psychological counseling, therapeutic interventions, and educational support for victims of CSEAM.
• Offender Rehabilitation:
  • Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) could be used to address the cognitive distortions that lead to abusive behavior.

About Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act, 2012

• The Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act, 2012 was enacted to provide a robust legal framework for the protection of children from offences of sexual assault, sexual harassment and pornography, while safeguarding the interest of the child at every stage of the judicial process.
• The framing of the Act seeks to put children first by making it easy to use by including mechanisms for child-friendly reporting, recording of evidence, investigation and speedy trial of offences through designated Special Courts.
• The Act provides for a variety of offences under which an accused can be punished. It recognises forms of penetration other than penile-vaginal penetration and criminalises acts of immodesty against children too. Offences under the act include:
  • Penetrative Sexual Assault: Insertion of penis/object/another body part in child’s vagina/urethra/anus/mouth, or asking the child to do so with them or some other person
  • Sexual Assault: When a person touches the child, or makes the child touch them or someone else
  • Sexual Harassment: passing sexually coloured remark, sexual gesture/noise, repeatedly following, flashing, etc.
  • Child Pornography
  • Aggravated Penetrative Sexual Assault/ Aggravated Sexual Assault

Salient features of the Act

• The act is gender-neutral for both children and for the accused.
• With respect to pornography, the Act criminalises even watching or collection of pornographic content involving children.
• The Act makes abetment of child sexual abuse an offence.
• Defines a child as any person below eighteen years of age
• Provides for mandatory reporting of sexual offences, keeping with the best international child protection standards.
• Police cast in the role of child protectors during the investigative process: The police personnel receiving a report of sexual abuse of a child are given the responsibility of making urgent arrangements for the care and protection of the child.
• Provisions for the medical examination of the child in a manner designed to cause as little distress as possible
• Provision of Special Courts: that conduct the trial in-camera and without revealing the identity of the child, in a child-friendly manner.
• Timely disposal of cases: A case of child sexual abuse must be disposed of within one year from the date the offence is reported.
• Recognition to a wide range of form of sexual abuse against children: as punishable offences.
• People who traffic children for sexual purposes are also punishable under the provisions relating to abetment in the Act. The Act prescribes stringent punishment graded as per the gravity of the offence, with a maximum term of rigorous imprisonment for life, and fine.
• Child-friendly process: It also provides for various procedural reforms, making the tiring process of trial in India considerably easier for children. The Act has been criticised as its provisions seem to criminalise consensual sexual intercourse between two people below the age of 18.

Contention/Criticisms around implementation of POCSO

Criticism in Definition of child

• The Act defines a child as a person under the age of 18 years. However, this definition is a purely biological one, and doesn’t take into account people who live with intellectual and psycho-social disability.
• A recent case in SC has been filed where a women of biological age 38yrs but mental age 6yrs was raped.
• The victim’s advocate argues that “failure to consider the mental age will be an attack on the very purpose of act.”
• SC has reserved the case for judgement and is determined to interpret whether the 2012 act encompasses the mental age or whether only biological age is inclusive in the definition.

Issue with the Mandatory Reporting feature

• According to the Act, every crime of child sexual abuse should be reported. If a person who has information of any abuse fails to report, they may face imprisonment up to six months or may be fined or both.
• Many child rights and women rights organisation has criticised this provision. According to experts, this provision takes away agency of choice from children.
• There may be many survivors who do not want to go through the trauma of criminal justice system, but this provision does not differentiate.
• Furthermore, mandatory reporting may also hinder access to medical aid, and psycho-social intervention.
• It contradicts the right to confidentiality for access to medical, and psychological care.

Contradiction with the Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act, 1971

• The POCSO Act was passed to strengthen legal provisions for the protection of children below 18 years of age from sexual abuse and exploitation.
• Under this Act, if any girl under 18 is seeking abortion the service provider is compelled to register a complaint of sexual assault with the police.
• However, under the MTP Act, it is not mandatory to report the identity of the person seeking an abortion.
• Consequently, service providers are hesitant to provide abortion services to girls under 18.

Issue with Legal Aid

• Section 40 of the Act allows victims to access legal aid. However, that is subject to Code of Criminal Procedure.
• In other words, the lawyer representing a child can only assist the Public Prosecutor, and file written final arguments if the judge permits.
• Thus, the interest of the victim often go unrepresented.

Issue with Consent

• The law presumes all sexual act with children under the age of 18 is sexual offence.
• Therefore, two adolescent who engage in consensual sexual act will also be punished under this law.
• This is especially a concern where adolescent is in relationship with someone from different caste, or religion.
• Parents have filed cases under this Act to ‘punish’ relationships they do not approve of.

About POCSO Amendment Act 2019

• Increases the minimum punishment (including death penalty) for penetrative sexual assault, aggravated penetrative sexual assault.
• The earlier amendment allowed the death penalty only in cases of sexual assault of girls below 12 years but now it will be applicable to boys also.
• Adds assault resulting in death of child, and assault committed during a natural calamity, or in any similar situations of violence into Aggravated penetrative sexual assault.
• Tightened the provisions to counter child pornography. While the earlier Act had punishment for storing child pornography for commercial purposes, the amendment includes punishment for possessing pornographic material in any form involving a child, even if the accused persons have failed to delete or destroy or report the same with an intention to share it.
• The Act defines child pornography as any visual depiction of sexually explicit conduct involving a child including photograph, video, digital or computer-generated image indistinguishable from an actual child.

-Source: The Hindu

Union Government Releases 2022 Atrocities Report

Context:

The union government has published a new report detailing the state of atrocities against Scheduled Castes in the year 2022 under the framework of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989.

Relevance:

GS II: Polity and Governance

Dimensions of the Article:

1. Key Findings of the Report on Atrocities Against SCs and STs
2. Reasons for Crime Against SC and ST Communities
3. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989

Key Findings of the Report on Atrocities Against SCs and STs:

• Case Statistics:
  • In 2022, there were 51,656 cases of atrocities against Scheduled Castes (SCs) and 9,735 cases against Scheduled Tribes (STs).
  • 97.7% of SC cases and 98.91% of ST cases were concentrated in 13 states.
• States with the Highest Incidents:
  • For SCs (Six states accounted for nearly 81% of the cases):
    • Uttar Pradesh: 12,287 cases (23.78%)
    • Rajasthan: 8,651 cases (16.75%)
    • Madhya Pradesh: 7,732 cases (14.97%)
    • Bihar: 6,799 cases (13.16%)
    • Odisha: 3,576 cases (6.93%)
    • Maharashtra: 2,706 cases (5.24%)
  • For STs:
    • Madhya Pradesh: 2,979 cases (30.61%)
    • Rajasthan: 2,498 cases (25.66%)
    • Odisha: 773 cases (7.94%)
    • Maharashtra: 691 cases (7.10%)
    • Andhra Pradesh: 499 cases (5.13%)

Charge Sheets and Investigations:

• SC-related Cases:
  • Charge sheets were filed in 60.38% of cases, while 14.78% were concluded with final reports due to false claims or lack of evidence.
• ST-related Cases:
  • Charge sheets were filed in 63.32% of cases, while 14.71% were concluded with final reports.
• By the end of 2022, 17,166 cases involving SCs and 2,702 cases involving STs were still under investigation.

Conviction Rates:

• The conviction rate under the Act has dropped from 39.2% in 2020 to 32.4% in 2022, reflecting a concerning decline in judicial outcomes.

Infrastructure Deficiencies:

• Out of 498 districts across 14 states, only 194 districts have established special courts to expedite trials for atrocities against SCs and STs.
• Some states, including Uttar Pradesh, have not adequately identified atrocity-prone areas, despite having high numbers of cases.

Protection Cells:

• SC/ST protection cells have been set up in several states and union territories, including Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, and others, along with Delhi, Jammu and Kashmir, and Puducherry.

Reasons for Crime Against SC and ST Communities:

• Caste Hierarchies:
  • Deep-rooted caste systems perpetuate discriminatory practices, leading to social exclusion and violence against SC/ST communities based on their caste identity.
• Land Ownership Conflicts:
  • SC/ST communities, historically deprived of land ownership, often face conflicts over land access with dominant castes.
• Limited Access to Resources:
  • Restricted access to education, employment, and economic resources makes SC/ST groups more vulnerable to exploitation and violence.
• Disproportionate Influence:
  • Dominant castes often wield political and social power, enabling them to enforce discriminatory practices without fear of legal consequences.
• Weak Law Enforcement:
  • Although laws like the SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act exist, weak enforcement, along with police and bureaucratic bias, often limits justice for victims of caste-based violence.
• Political Exploitation:
  • Caste tensions are sometimes worsened by political actors who exploit these divides for electoral gains, leading to polarization and conflict within communities.

Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989:

• The Act was enacted to protect Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes from caste-based discrimination and violence, reinforcing the provisions of Articles 15 and 17 of the Indian Constitution.
• The legislation builds upon earlier laws like the Untouchability (Offences) Act, 1955, and the Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955, aimed at abolishing untouchability and discrimination based on caste.

Key Provisions of the Act:

• Defined Offenses: The Act categorizes acts of physical violence, harassment, and social discrimination against SC/ST individuals as “atrocities,” subject to stringent legal penalties.
• Legal Framework:
  • The Central Government crafts the implementing rules, while State Governments and Union Territories provide local enforcement.
  • Special courts and SC/ST Protection Cells, led by senior police officers, are established for efficient case handling and trials.
  • Investigations must be led by officers at least at the Deputy Superintendent level and completed swiftly within a set timeframe.

Legal Protections and Bail Conditions:

• Anticipatory Bail Restrictions: Section 18 bars the application of anticipatory bail for accused under this Act, as outlined in Section 438 of the Code of Criminal Procedure.

Victim Support and Rehabilitation:

• The Act includes provisions for the relief and rehabilitation of victims, offering financial compensation, legal aid, and other support services.

Recent Amendments to Enhance Protections:

• 2015 Amendment: Introduced tougher provisions and broadened the definition of offenses to include actions like garlanding with footwear, forced manual scavenging, social or economic boycotts, and other forms of ostracism.
• Offenses Added:
  • Sexual exploitation and unauthorized physical contact with SC/ST women.
  • Outlawing traditional practices such as dedicating SC/ST women as devadasis.
• Public Accountability: Imposes penalties on public servants who fail to perform their duties in protecting SC/ST rights.
• 2018 Amendment: Simplified the arrest process by removing the requirement for Senior Superintendent approval before detaining an accused.

Scope Limitation:

• Intra-community Offenses: The Act does not address offenses committed within the SC/ST communities against each other.

Challenges associated with the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989:

Resource Limitations:

• These courts often struggle with insufficient resources and infrastructure, affecting their functionality and efficiency.
• There is a notable backlog and slow processing of atrocity cases, which can extend beyond the intended scope of the SC/ST Act.

Victim Support and Rehabilitation:

• The Act provides limited and unclear details on the rehabilitation of victims, primarily focusing on social and economic support without concrete measures.
• Victims often encounter physical, psychological, and social challenges. There is a crucial need for more detailed and comprehensive rehabilitation strategies to aid victims towards economic self-sufficiency.

Awareness and Training:

• Both beneficiaries, including victims and law enforcement personnel, frequently lack sufficient understanding of the Act’s specific provisions.

Legal and Misuse Concerns:

• The Act includes provisions for warrantless arrests and non-bailable offenses, which have occasionally led to misuse.
• The broad and stringent nature of the law has led to concerns about false accusations and harassment, particularly impacting individuals from non-SC/ST backgrounds.

Coverage of Offenses:

• Certain crimes that lead to atrocities, such as blackmailing among SC/ST communities, are not explicitly addressed within the Act.
• The current definition of atrocities may not fully cover all forms of abuse experienced by SCs and STs, suggesting a need for legislative amendments to include a broader array of crimes.

-Source: The Hindu

PM Modi Speaks at UN Summit on Multilateral Solutions

Context:

Prime Minister Narendra Modi recently addressed the ‘Summit of the Future’ at the United Nations General Assembly in New York, focusing on the theme ‘Multilateral Solutions for a Better Tomorrow’.

Relevance:

GS II: International Relations

Dimensions of the Article:

1. Key Highlights of PM Modi’s Speech
2. United Nations General Assembly (UNGA)
3. Summit of the Future

Key Highlights of PM Modi’s Speech:

• Collective Strength:
  • PM Modi stressed that humanity’s success depends on collective strength rather than conflict on the battlefield.
  • He called for reforms in global institutions to ensure global peace and sustainable development, promoting a human-centric approach to address global challenges.

• New Conflict Arenas:
  • PM Modi highlighted emerging conflict zones, including cyber, maritime, and space, in addition to traditional threats like terrorism.
  • He advocated for global digital governance to protect national sovereignty and integrity.
  • He also emphasized the need for balanced global regulations to ensure the safe and responsible use of technology.

• India’s Development Success:
  • PM Modi reflected on India’s achievement of lifting 250 million people out of poverty and its success in sustainable development.
  • He expressed India’s readiness to share its experience with the Global South.
  • He reaffirmed India’s commitment to the idea of “One Earth, One Family, One Future”, emphasizing initiatives like One Earth, One Health and One Sun, One World, One Grid.

• Reforming Global Institutions:
  • PM Modi stressed the need to reform international institutions like the UN Security Council, aligning with India’s aspiration for permanent membership.
  • He referred to the inclusion of the African Union in the G20 during India’s presidency as an example of efforts to make global governance more inclusive.

• Global Digital Infrastructure:
  • PM Modi promoted India’s digital public infrastructure as a tool for global good, offering it to the world.
  • He emphasized that global action must match global ambition in areas such as cyber, maritime, and space security.

United Nations General Assembly (UNGA):

• Establishment:
  • Founded in 1945 under the UN Charter and headquartered in New York City.
  • It is one of the six principal organs of the UN and serves as the primary policy-making body of the organization.
• Role:
  • Provides a platform for multilateral discussions on a wide range of international issues.
  • Every member state of the UN has an equal vote in the General Assembly.
• Key Decisions:
  • Appointing the Secretary-General based on the Security Council’s recommendation.
  • Electing non-permanent members to the Security Council.
  • Approving the UN budget.
• Important Achievements:
  • Adoption of the Millennium Declaration in 2000.
  • 2005 World Summit Outcome Document.
  • Formulation of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in September 2015.
• Annual General Debate:
  • The UNGA holds an annual debate where member states express their views on major global issues.
  • The UN Secretary-General presents a report on the work of the organization at the opening of the debate.

79th UN General Assembly:

• Details:
  • The 79th session was held from 10th to 30th September 2024, focusing on accelerating progress toward the SDGs.
  • Global leaders addressed interconnected global challenges and adopted the Pact for the Future, which includes the Global Digital Compact with a focus on gender equality.
  • The session is chaired by Cameroonian President Philemon Yong.
• Theme:
  • “Leaving no one behind: acting together for the advancement of peace, sustainable development, and human dignity for present and future generations”.

Summit of the Future:

• Details:
  • Held on 22-23 September 2024 at the UN Headquarters in New York, the summit addressed global governance challenges revealed by recent crises.
  • Aimed to reaffirm commitments to the SDGs, strengthen global cooperation, and build a foundation for an improved multilateral system.
• Focus:
  • International cooperation on critical global issues such as climate change, poverty, inequality, ongoing conflicts, and health crises.
• Theme:
  • “Multilateral solutions for a better tomorrow”.
• Expected Outcome:
  • The summit is expected to produce the Pact for the Future, along with key documents like the Global Digital Compact and the Declaration on Future Generations.

-Source: The Hindu

National Green Tribunal

Context:

Recently, the National Green Tribunal (NGT) ordered classifying Nainital town into prohibited, regulated, and development zones.

Relevance:

GS III: Environment and Ecology

Dimensions of the Article:

1. Key Points from the National Green Tribunal (NGT) Order Regarding Nainital:
2. National Green Tribunal (NGT)

Key Points from the National Green Tribunal (NGT) Order Regarding Nainital:

• Zoning of Nainital:
  • The NGT has ordered classifying Nainital town into prohibited, regulated, and development zones to manage growth responsibly.
• Objective:
  • This zoning aims to curb the environmental impact caused by unchecked urbanisation and ensure responsible development management.
• Carrying Capacity:
  • The NGT emphasized the idea of “carrying capacity”, which refers to the maximum population and development limit that Nainital can support without causing environmental degradation.
• Environmental Concerns:
  • The felling of oak and deodar trees for parking facilities near hotels has led to ecological damage in Nainital’s catchment area, affecting the recharge of Nainital Lake.
• Nainital Lake:
  • Nainital Lake is a lunar-shaped freshwater lake, formed due to tectonic movements. It is located in the Kumaon region of Uttarakhand.
• Role of the NGT:
  • The NGT is a statutory body established under the National Green Tribunal Act, 2010 to ensure the quick resolution of cases related to environmental protection and forest conservation.

National Green Tribunal (NGT)

• The NGT was established on October 18, 2010 under the National Green Tribunal Act 2010, passed by the Central Government.
• National Green Tribunal Act, 2010 is an Act of the Parliament of India which enables creation of a special tribunal to handle the expeditious disposal of the cases pertaining to environmental issues.
• NGT Act draws inspiration from the India’s constitutional provision of (Constitution of India/Part III) Article 21 Protection of life and personal liberty, which assures the citizens of India the right to a healthy environment.
• The stated objective of the Central Government was to provide a specialized forum for effective and speedy disposal of cases pertaining to environment protection, conservation of forests and for seeking compensation for damages caused to people or property due to violation of environmental laws or conditions specified while granting permissions.

Structure of National Green Tribunal

• Following the enactment of the said law, the Principal Bench of the NGT has been established in the National Capital – New Delhi, with regional benches in Pune (Western Zone Bench), Bhopal (Central Zone Bench), Chennai (Southern Bench) and Kolkata (Eastern Bench). Each Bench has a specified geographical jurisdiction covering several States in a region.
• The Chairperson of the NGT is a retired Judge of the Supreme Court, Head Quartered in Delhi.
• Other Judicial members are retired Judges of High Courts. Each bench of the NGT will comprise of at least one Judicial Member and one Expert Member.
• Expert members should have a professional qualification and a minimum of 15 years’ experience in the field of environment/forest conservation and related subjects.

Powers of NGT

The NGT has the power to hear all civil cases relating to environmental issues and questions that are linked to the implementation of laws listed in Schedule I of the NGT Act. These include the following:

• The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974;
• The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977;
• The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980;
• The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981;
• The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986;
• The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991;
• The Biological Diversity Act, 2002.
• This means that any violations pertaining ONLY to these laws, or any order / decision taken by the Government under these laws can be challenged before the NGT.
• Importantly, the NGT has NOT been vested with powers to hear any matter relating to the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, the Indian Forest Act, 1927 and various laws enacted by States relating to forests, tree preservation etc.

-Source: Indian Express

International Big Cat Alliance

Context:

Recently, India has officially joined the International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA), which was launched by the Prime Minister in 2023. IBCA aims to protect big cats and their habitats.

Relevance:

GS III: Environment and Ecology

Dimensions of the Article:

1. About International Big Cat Alliance

About International Big Cat Alliance:

Aim:

• It aims to strengthen global cooperation and efforts for conservation of seven big cat species and their habitats.

Objective:

• IBCA aims for mutual cooperation among countries for mutual benefit in furthering the conservation agenda.
• IBCA would have a multipronged approach in broad basing and establishing linkages manifold in several areas and help in knowledge sharing, capacity building, networking, advocacy, finance and resources support, research and technical support, education and awareness.

Members:

• The International Big Cat Alliance has been conceived as a multi-country, multi-agency coalition of 96 big cat range countries,
• Non-range countries interested in big cat conservation
• Conservation partners and scientific organizations working in the field of big cat conservation
• Business groups and corporates willing to contribute to the cause of big cats
• Seven big cats include Tiger, Lion, Leopard, Snow Leopard, Puma, Jaguar and the Cheetah out of these five big cats viz. Tiger, Lion, Leopard, Snow Leopard and Cheetah are found in India.

-Source: Indian Express

Fjords

Context:

A diesel fuel spill from a ship that sank recently spreads to the Greenland fjord.

Relevance:

GS I: Geography

Formation and Picturesque Nature of Fjords

Formation of Fjords: Fjords are steep, U-shaped valleys that have been submerged under seawater. Their formation involves a series of geological processes:

• Glacial Action: During ice ages, glaciers move down valleys, carving deep U-shaped troughs with their immense weight and abrasive action.
• Submersion: As glaciers retreat or melt, the valleys they’ve carved are invaded by the sea. The subsequent rise in sea level, or land subsidence, fills these valleys with seawater, creating fjords.

Picturesque Nature of Fjords:

• Dramatic Landscapes: Fjords are characterized by steep, towering cliffs that abruptly plunge into deep, serene waters. The contrast creates a visually stunning panorama.
• Water Reflections: The often-calm waters of fjords mirror the surrounding landscapes, doubling the scenic beauty.
• Biodiversity: The unique mix of freshwater from rivers and saltwater from oceans in fjords leads to rich marine life, enhancing their natural appeal.
• Varied Climate Impact: Fjords, especially in regions like Norway, can showcase snow-capped peaks while having temperate rainforests in the lower areas, providing a diverse array of scenic elements within a compact region.
• Seclusion: Many fjords are located in remote areas, ensuring unspoiled landscapes, clear waters, and a serene atmosphere, away from urban disturbances.

In essence, the combination of dramatic geological formations with the pristine beauty of nature makes fjords among the most picturesque landscapes in the world.

-Source: Indian Express

Barak Bhuban wildlife sanctuary

Context:

Recently, the National Green Tribunal’s (NGT) eastern bench in Kolkata has ordered a stay on road construction work inside the Barak Bhuban wildlife sanctuary in Assam’s Cachar district.

Relevance:

GS III: Environment and Ecology

Barak Bhuban Wildlife Sanctuary:

• Location:
  • Found within Assam’s Barak Valley, which also includes the Borail Wildlife Sanctuary.
  • Nestled between the Barak and Sonai rivers.
  • Named after the Barak River, the second-largest river in Northeast India.
  • Spans across Cachar, Hailakandi, and Karimganj districts.
• Fauna:
  • Acts as a vital habitat for a variety of wildlife species.
  • Home to eight species of primates, including the slow loris, rhesus macaque, and hoolock gibbon.
  • The sanctuary also provides refuge for the king cobra.

Key Information about Barak Valley:

• Geographical Location:
  • Situated in the southern region of Assam.
  • Named after the Barak River, the largest river of the valley and second largest in Northeast India.
• Borders:
  • The valley shares borders with several states:
    • Meghalaya to the north.
    • Manipur to the east.
    • Tripura and Mizoram to the south.
  • Additionally, it is bordered by Bangladesh to the south.
• Biodiversity Hotspot:
  • The valley is part of the Indo-Myanmar biodiversity hotspot.
• Land Usage:
  • Approximately 4.8% of the valley’s geographical area is covered by tea plantations.
  • Many hill areas are used for home gardens or designated as reserve forests.
• Vegetation:
  • The valley is characterized by tropical evergreen, semi-evergreen, and tropical deciduous forests.
  • Rainforests are found in the northern and southeastern parts of the valley.
• Climate:
  • The region experiences a subtropical, warm, and humid climate.

-Source: Indian Express