In the early 2nd millennium BCE (a few centuries after 2000 BCE), the Indus/Harappan/Sindhu-Sarasvatī civilisation — called India's 'First Urbanisation' — disintegrated. Some of its cities were abandoned; in others, people continued living but reverted to a rural or village lifestyle.

All the components of the Harappan urban order had disappeared:

• Elaborate structures — both private and public
• Crowded streets and busy markets
• Different communities with specialised occupations (metalsmiths, potters, builders, weavers, craftspeople)
• A writing system
• A sanitation system
• The presence of an administration
• A larger state structure with a ruling class at the head

For a whole millennium (about 1,000 years), urban life remained absent from India, though there may have been a few towns in north India. There were important regional cultures in this period, though we need not study them here.

Then, in the 1st millennium BCE, a vibrant new phase of urbanisation began in the Ganga plains, parts of the Indus (Sindhu) basin and neighbouring regions, gradually spreading to other parts of the Subcontinent.

Sources of Knowledge

We know about this mainly from two sources:

• Archaeological excavations — confirmed the existence of ancient urban centres
• Ancient literature — late Vedic, Buddhist and Jain literatures are full of references to these new urban centres

This new phase is often called India's 'Second Urbanisation' — which, incidentally, has continued right up to today!

Formation of Janapadas

Towards the end of the 2nd millennium BCE, regional cultures gradually reorganised themselves in north India. As people formed clans or groups sharing a common language and customs, each clan came to be associated with a territory or janapada led by a rājā or ruler.

The janapadas grew as trade networks expanded and connected them.

Rise of Mahājanapadas

By the 8th or 7th centuries BCE, some early states had merged together. The resulting bigger units were known as mahājanapadas. Although texts have different lists, the more frequent list gives 16 mahājanapadas, extending from:

• Gandhāra in the northwest
• Anga in the east
• Aśhmaka in central India, close to the Godavari River

Fig. 4.3 — Map of the sixteen mahājanapadas (borders are approximate). Note the concentration in the Ganga plains.

Fig. 4.4 — Ruins of a complex at Kauśhāmbī, capital of the Vatsa mahājanapada (near modern Prayagraj, UP)

Features of Mahājanapada Cities

Most capitals were fairly large, well-fortified cities with:

• A moat (deep water-filled ditch) running outside the fortifications as further defence
• Deliberately narrow gateways through the rampart walls — so guards could control the movement of people and goods entering or leaving
• Impressive fortifications built by the king

Sabhā and Samiti — The Assemblies

Each janapada had an assembly or council, called sabhā or samiti, where matters concerning the clan would be discussed. Most members were elders in the clan.

The rājā was not expected to rule independently or arbitrarily. A good ruler was supposed to take advice from those assemblies, apart from ministers and administrators. According to some texts, an incompetent ruler could be removed by the assembly. (However, this was not necessarily an established law — data for such remote periods is incomplete.)

Two Systems of Governance

In monarchies, the king would:

• Collect taxes or revenue
• Maintain law and order
• Get impressive fortifications built around the capital
• Maintain an army to defend the territory or wage war with neighbouring states

The age of the janapadas and mahājanapadas was an age of profound change, which would impact Indian civilisation until present times. It also saw the emergence of new schools of thought — late Vedic, Buddhist, Jain — and their respective literatures. Indian art also underwent a renewal.

a) Iron Metallurgy

While the Harappan civilisation mastered copper and bronze metallurgy, a major shift in the Second Urbanisation involved iron metallurgy.

Fig. 4.5 — A panel of the Sanchi stūpa depicting a smithy (metal workshop) where workers bring firewood, water, stoke fire, beat iron, etc. | Fig. 4.6 — Punch-marked coins from various ancient cities of north India

b) First Coins — Punch-Marked Coins

Another major innovation was the first use of coins in India, made necessary by growing trade. Very soon, coins were exchanged across different regions and even with other parts of the world.

c) Schools of Thought and Art

This period saw the emergence of several new schools of thought:

• Late Vedic schools and their literature
• Buddhism — founded by Gautama Buddha (born in Lumbini, capital Kapilavastu, both near Kosala mahājanapada)
• Jainism — founded by Vardhamana Mahavira (born in Vaiśhālī, Vajji mahājanapada)

Those schools disseminated their teachings through scholars, monks and nuns travelling across India and people undertaking pilgrimages. Indian art also underwent a renewal — it would blossom in the age of empires.

As societies grew more complex with the rise of civilisation, they organised themselves into several groups based on class, occupation or other criteria. In India, the society was organised in a two-fold system: Jāti and Varṇa.

Jāti

A jāti is a group or community of people with a specific professional occupation closely tied to their livelihood. Key features:

• Skills of a jāti — in agriculture, metallurgy, commerce or any craft — were generally transmitted from generation to generation
• A jāti would often be further subdivided into sub-jātis, each developing its own customs concerning marriage, rituals or food habits

Varṇa

The concept of varṇa emerged from Vedic texts. There were four varṇas:

Historical Evidence — Flexibility in Early Period

There is historical evidence — in texts and inscriptions — that in the early period, individuals and communities changed their professional occupations if circumstances demanded. Examples:

• A long drought or natural calamity could force a community of farmers to migrate to a city and take up other occupations
• Some Brahmins would turn to trade or even military activities

This complex system structured Indian society, organised its activities (including economic ones), and therefore gave it some stability. In time, however, the system became rigid and led to inequalities and discrimination towards the lower jātis or some communities excluded from the varṇa-jāti system.

Ancient Trade Routes

In this 1st millennium BCE, important communication routes opened up for purposes of trade, pilgrimage, military campaigns, etc. Two routes became widely used and are often mentioned in the literature:

Many lateral roads also connected with important ports on the western and eastern coasts, which were vibrant centres of trade.

Fig. 4.7 — Śhiśhupalgarh (today a suburb of Bhubaneswar, first excavated in 1948): one of the gateways into the city through the fortifications; the moat, full of water, is visible outside the gateway. Notice the narrowing in the gateway, for control of movement of people and goods.

Eastern India — Śhiśhupalgarh / Kalinga

In the eastern region, major cities emerged, such as Śhiśhupalgarh (today Sisupalgarh, part of Bhubaneswar), which was the capital of the Kalinga region and featured:

• A strict square ground plan
• Imposing fortifications
• Broad streets
• First excavated in 1948

South India — Three Early Kingdoms

In the Subcontinent's southern regions, cities began emerging from about 400 BCE, although recent excavations claim to find some signs of commercial activities going further back. Around this time, three kingdoms emerged:

• Cholas
• Cheras
• Pāṇḍyas

Apart from archaeological evidence, the most ancient Tamil literature (Sangam literature) mentions those kingdoms and several of their kings.

Fig. 4.9 — Shell and gemstones industries at the site of Kodumanal (near Erode, Tamil Nadu) — evidence of thriving trade in southern India during this period

Because the southern regions are rich in resources such as precious and semiprecious stones, gold, and spices, they profitably traded not only with the rest of India but also with kingdoms and empires overseas.

The Timeline

Fig. 4.8 — Timeline covering the period from 1900 BCE to 300 BCE: showing end of Harappan Civilisation, Janapadas (1200–400 BCE), and Mahājanapadas (800–300 BCE)

End of Mahājanapadas

By 300 or 200 BCE, almost the entire Subcontinent — including regions in the Northeast — was one vibrant interconnected land. Goods and culture travelled from region to region, and often beyond India to parts of Central and Southeast Asia.

About the same time, the mahājanapadas ceased to exist, leaving the place to fresh developments (the empires) that were going to reshape India.

Comparison: First vs. Second Urbanisation