On the Right to a Healthy Environment 

Why in News ?

• Recurring winter smog in Delhi–NCR with severe AQI levels has revived debate on whether the right to a clean and healthy environment should be explicitly constitutionalised.
• Existing protection relies largely on judicial interpretation of Article 21, not an express fundamental right.
• Raises questions of state responsibility, enforceability, and environmental federalism.

Relevance

GS II (Polity & Governance)

• Article 21 expansion
• Directive Principles vs Fundamental Rights
• Judicial activism

GS III (Environment)

• Air pollution
• Environmental governance
• Climate change law

The Problem Context: Air Pollution as a Rights Issue

A. Delhi–NCR Air Quality Reality

• Winter AQI frequently enters “Severe” (401–500) or “Severe+” category.
• PM2.5 concentrations often exceed:
  • WHO guideline: 5 µg/m³ (annual)
  • Delhi winter peaks: 150–300 µg/m³ (30–60× WHO limit).
• Health impacts:
  • Stroke, ischemic heart disease, lung cancer, COPD.
  • Children disproportionately affected due to lung development.

B. Major Sources of Pollution

• Fossil fuel combustion (power plants, vehicles)
• Transport emissions (diesel dominance)
• Construction & demolition dust
• Waste burning
• Industrial emissions
• Agricultural residue burning

 Particulate Matter (PM) is the single most lethal pollutant.

Understanding Particulate Matter (Scientific Basis)

Type	Size	Health Impact
PM10	≤10 microns	Enters respiratory tract
PM2.5	≤2.5 microns	Penetrates lungs, bloodstream
DPM (Diesel PM)	<1 micron	Neuro, cardiac, pulmonary damage

•  
• Diesel particulate matter (DPM) forms a sub-category of PM2.5.
• High toxicity even at low exposure levels.
• No safe threshold scientifically established.

Regulatory Response: GRAP & CAQM

• Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM) amended the Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP).
• Key changes:
  • Mandatory school closures under GRAP Phases 3 & 4.
  • Removal of state discretion.
  • Staggered working hours for public offices under Phase 3.
• Significance:
  • Recognises pollution as a public health emergency, not a seasonal inconvenience.

Constitutional Evolution of Environmental Rights

A. Original Constitution

• No explicit environmental provisions.
• Environmental protection inferred from:
  • Natural justice
  • Welfare state philosophy
  • Directive Principles

B. Judicial Expansion via Article 21 (Right to Life)

Landmark Cases

• Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India
  • Expanded “life” to mean life with dignity, not mere animal existence.
• Rural Litigation and Entitlement Kendra v. State of U.P.
  • First recognition of healthy environment as part of Article 21.
• M.C. Mehta v. Union of India (1987)
  • Explicitly held that pollution-free environment is part of the right to life.
• Subhash Kumar v. State of Bihar
  • Read Articles 48A + 51A(g) with Article 21.
  • State has a constitutional obligation to protect air and water.

Explicit Environmental Provisions in the Constitution

A. Directive Principles

• Article 48A:
  • State shall protect and improve the environment.
  • Emphasises compatibility of agriculture and ecology.

B. Fundamental Duties

• Article 51A(g):
  • Duty of citizens to protect the natural environment.

 Limitation:
Neither is directly enforceable in courts like Fundamental Rights.

Judiciary as Environmental Regulator (Post-1980s)

• Liberalisation & privatisation increased ecological stress.
• Courts intervened using:
  • Public Interest Litigations (PILs) under Articles 32 & 226.
• Judiciary became:
  • Environmental rule-maker
  • Environmental enforcer
  • Environmental adjudicator

Environment Protection Act, 1986

• Section 2(a) defines environment broadly:
  • Air, water, land
  • Inter-relationship with humans, flora, fauna, microorganisms.
• Reinforces:
  • Right to live free from disease and infection as part of dignity.

Disaster Jurisprudence & Environmental Liability

A. Absolute Liability

• Introduced in M.C. Mehta v. Union of India (Oleum Gas Leak).
• Key features:
  • No exceptions
  • Liability regardless of fault or negligence
• Stronger than strict liability.

B. Core Environmental Principles

Precautionary Principle

• Explained in Vellore Citizens’ Welfare Forum v. Union of India.
• Lack of scientific certainty cannot delay preventive action.
• Part of Indian law.

Polluter Pays Principle

• Polluters must:
  • Bear cost of remediation
  • Compensate for environmental harm
• Shifts burden from state to violators.

Public Trust Doctrine

• Explained in M.C. Mehta v. Kamal Nath.
• State acts as trustee of natural resources.
• Cannot transfer or exploit for private gain.

Constitutional Anchors

• Article 39(b): Community ownership of material resources.
• Article 39(c): Prevent concentration of means of production.
• Reinforced in Radhey Shyam Sahu v. State of U.P..

Climate Change as a Fundamental Rights Issue

• M.K. Ranjitsinh v. Union of India:
  • Recognised:
    • Right against adverse effects of climate change
    • Linked to Article 21 (life) and Article 14 (equality)

 Expands environmental rights into climate justice.

The Core Gap: Why Judicial Recognition Is Not Enough

• Judicially evolved rights:
  • Cannot be directly claimed unless tied to Part III.
• State compliance remains:
  • Episodic
  • Reactive
  • Crisis-driven
• Environmental governance becomes court-centric, not institution-centric.

The Case for Explicit Constitutional Right

Why Needed

• Makes:
  • Clean air & water justiciable by default
  • State & citizens equally accountable
• Reduces over-dependence on PILs.
• Aligns India with:
  • UN Human Rights Council recognition of clean environment as a human right (2021).

Conclusion

India’s environmental protection framework rests on judicial creativity rather than constitutional clarity; making the right to a clean and healthy environment explicit is now essential for enforceability, accountability, and ecological survival.

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