The last Maurya emperor was assassinated around 185 BCE by his commander-in-chief Pushyamitra Shunga. This led to a breakup of the empire – hardly half a century after Ashoka. Many new kingdoms emerged across the subcontinent. The northwest region became weak, exposing it to invasions from outside the subcontinent.

This period (~2nd century BCE to 3rd century CE) is called the Age of Reorganisation – existing regions were being reorganised into new kingdoms constantly competing to become powerful. Despite struggles, this age saw remarkable cultural exchange and assimilation, ultimately with a dominance of Indian themes and flourishing Sanskrit literature.

Pushyamitra Shunga founded the Shunga dynasty ruling over parts of north and central India. He performed the ashvamedha yajna, a Vedic ritual, to establish himself as the most powerful ruler. The empire lasted about a century.

The Shunga period saw the revival of Vedic rituals, but other schools of thought continued to flourish. Sanskrit emerged as a preferred language for philosophical and literary works. The Yoga Sutras were compiled by Patanjali during this period.

Fig. 6.5.1 to 6.5.4 Railings at the Bharhut Stupa (Madhya Pradesh) – Shunga period Buddhist art. (1) The railings and circumambulatory path of the stupa. (2) Carving of Lakshmi on a railing. (3) A group of singers and dancers. (4) Elephants holding up the wheel of dharma.

Fig. 6.6 Some Shunga Contributions to Art: (1) Pillar with a Greek warrior. (2) Male figure. (3) Woman with a child. (4) Woman with a fan. (5) A vase. (6) Female figure with hair ornaments, terracotta. (7) Royal family. (8) Bronze bangles covered with a thin layer of gold. (9) Comb of ivory. (10) Beads of a necklace.

Fig. 6.7 A panel from the Bharhut Stupa – one of the finest examples of early Buddhist art under Shunga patronage. The panel depicts intricate relief carvings with medallion patterns and human figures.

The Satavahanas ruled large parts of the Deccan from the 2nd century BCE onward. Sometimes referred to as Andhras, their empire comprised present-day Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Maharashtra. Most famous capitals: Amravati and Pratishthana (Paithan). Trade and commerce flourished.

Fig. 6.9 The Naneghat Caves near Pune – located close to a major trade route, used for collection of tolls and taxes, and as resting places for traders. Inscriptions here contain early Indian numerals and mention the ashvamedha yajna.

Princes were often named after their mothers. Thus Gautamiputra Satakarni was named after his mother Gautami Balashri – a powerful queen who donated land to Buddhist monks.

Fig. 6.11 and 6.12 (Left) The Karla caves near Lonavala, Maharashtra – Satavahana contribution. Made for Buddhist monks. Note the magnificent pillars and stone replica of a stupa in the centre – all carved out of a rocky hillside! (Right) A yaksha (minor deity associated with nature) from the Pitalkhora caves, Maharashtra, Satavahana period. Inscription: kanhaddasena hiramakarena kata – made by Kanahadasa, a goldsmith.

In the 3rd century CE, the Satavahana Empire fragmented due to weak central control and gradual economic decline.

After the Maurya Empire’s decline, Kalinga (modern-day Odisha) rose under the Chedi dynasty. King Kharavela was a devoted follower of Jain teachings – called bhikshu-raja (monk-king) – though he respected all schools of thought.

Fig. 6.13.1 to 6.13.3 (1) Udayagiri caves near Bhubaneswar – notable examples of rock-cut architecture, developed for Jain monks by Kharavela. (2) The Hathigumpha inscription written in Brahmi script – records King Kharavela’s accomplishments year after year, including military campaigns and benevolent works. (3) Carved panel showing a scene from the Ramayana.

Between the 2nd/3rd century BCE and 3rd century CE, three powerful kingdoms rose in south India. Ashoka’s edicts mention them – showing they remained independent even at the height of Mauryan power.

Fig. 6.14 Kingdoms in the South (borders approximate, fluctuated in time). Chola – capital Uraiyur, symbol: Tiger (red flag). Chera – capital Vanji/Karur, symbol: Bow (yellow flag). Pandya – capital Madurai, symbol: Fish (yellow flag).

The Cholas ruled south India from 3rd century BCE to 13th century CE. King Karikala defeated a combined Chera-Pandya force and established his supremacy.

Fig. 6.17 A view of the Kallanai or Grand Anicut – built by Chola king Karikala on the Kaveri river. It diverts water to the central and southern Kaveri delta, earned the area the name rice bowl of the South, and is still in use today helping millions in Tamil Nadu with irrigation.

Also known as Keralaputra (sons of Kerala) – ruled western Tamil Nadu and Kerala, capital at Vanji (present-day Karur, Tamil Nadu). Known for extensive trade connections with the Roman Empire and West Asia, exporting spices, timber, ivory and pearls.

Capital at present-day Madurai. Megasthenes (Indika) mentions this kingdom as prosperous with active trade with Greeks and Romans. Kharavela mentions hundreds of pearls from the Pandya kingdom. Also an important naval power.

Alexander’s satraps left behind while retreating eventually established independent domains – becoming known as Indo-Greeks. While they arrived as conquerors, they were much influenced by local culture, creating a blend of Greek and Indian elements in governance, art, language and daily life.

Fig. 6.19 The Heliodorus pillar near Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh – named after an Indo-Greek ambassador who converted to Vaishnavism. His inscription praises Vasudeva as the god of gods and states: Three immortal precepts when practised lead to heaven: self-restraint, charity, consciousness.

Indo-Greek coins were made of gold, silver, copper and nickel. Some depicted Indian deities like Vasudeva-Krishna and Lakshmi – showing their assimilation into Indian culture. Their rule ended with the invasions of the Shakas.

The Kushanas, originally from central Asia, entered India probably in the 2nd century CE. At its peak, their empire extended from central Asia to large parts of northern India. Their rule marked a period of extensive cultural intermixing. They controlled significant sections of the Silk Route.

Fig. 6.22 The famous headless statue of King Kanishka (1.85 m high) – most powerful ruler of the Kushana dynasty. Note the Central Asian clothing, boots and weapon. The Brahmi inscription reads: maharaja rajadhiraja devaputra kanishka – The great king, king of kings, son of God, Kanishka.

Fig. 6.23 Coins of Kanishka. (Left pair) Kanishka holding a spear (King of Kings); reverse shows Buddha with inscription BODDHO in Greek script. (Right pair) Emperor on one side; Shiva with bull Nandi on the other – showing patronage of both Buddhism and Hinduism.

Kushana art, exemplified by the Gandhara and Mathura schools, is celebrated for the fusion of Indian and Greek styles. This era laid the groundwork for later temple architecture in the subcontinent.

Fig. 6.24 Head of a bodhisattva (future Buddha) from the Gandhara School of Art – note the fusion of Indian and Greek features. Crafted in grey-black schist stone with realistic anatomy and flowing details – characteristic of the Gandhara style that blended Greco-Roman elements with Indian features.

Fig. 6.26 Kubera, God of wealth from the Mathura School of Art – note the prominent moustache (a distinguishing feature of some Indian sculptures). The Mathura style uses red sandstone and produces fuller figures with smooth modelling, reflecting distinct Indian style.

Fig. 6.27.1 to 6.27.6 Art from the Kushana period. (1) Death of Buddha – Gandhara style, grey-black schist. (2) Bodhisattva Maitreya – Gandhara style. (3) Shiva linga worshipped by Kushana devotees – Mathura red sandstone. (4) A Naga between two Nagis with inscription from 8th year of Kanishka’s reign – Mathura. (5) Kartikeya, god of war, and Agni, god of fire – Mathura. (6) Standing Buddha – Mathura style.

The Kushanas held control over significant sections of the Silk Route, and during their reign trade grew, connecting India with Asia and the West.

Fig. 6.25 (West) Trade routes of the ancient world – green line shows the Silk Route connecting China with the Mediterranean world through central Asia and Persia. Key western nodes: Rome, Byzantium, Antioch, Alexandria, Damascus, Samarkand, Balkh, Qumis-Iran.

Fig. 6.25 (East) The Silk Route through India and China – green = main Silk Road. Key Indian centres: Takshashila, Mathura, Pataliputra, Tamralipti. Route connects westward through central Asia and eastward to Luoyang in China.

Despite political conflicts, this period saw remarkable cultural exchange and assimilation. Styles interacted, but with a dominance of Indian themes (Hindu and Buddhist). Sanskrit literature flourished – the Mahabharata and Ramayana were composed/compiled in this age.