Agriculture (from Latin: agri = field, culture = to cultivate) is one of the oldest occupations of humankind. It encompasses the preparation of soil, cultivation of plants, rearing of livestock, growing of trees, and in some areas, pisciculture (fish rearing) and rearing of cocoons to extract silk thread.

Very broadly, agriculture encompasses: farming, animal husbandry (raising livestock), forestry, and horticulture.

A large proportion of families in India are closely connected to the land, and in many cases, have been cultivating it for generations. India’s agricultural landscape is a vibrant blend of traditional and modern farming practices, with diverse crops and deep-rooted cultural traditions — from the golden wheat fields of Punjab and saffron valley of Kashmir, to the lush tea gardens of the Northeast/Nilgiris, and the emerald paddy fields of Kerala.

The story of Indian farming goes back to prehistory. Key archaeological and historical milestones:

Over time, Indian farmers learned to cultivate:

• Oilseeds: sesame, safflower, linseed, mustard, castor
• Legumes: green gram, black gram, fenugreek
• Fibre crops: cotton, hemp, jute
• Fruits: grapes, dates, jujube, jackfruit, mango, mulberry, black plum

India’s varied geography and climate influence the variety of crops grown. Xuanzang, the Chinese pilgrim travelling in 7th century India, observed: “The climate and the quality of the soil being different according to situation, the produce of the land is various in its character.”

India is divided into 15 agroclimatic zones. This categorisation combines climate factors, different soil types, terrain, and types of vegetation to help plan agricultural production.

The Monsoon and Agriculture

The Indian monsoon system is a key factor in the country’s agricultural diversity.

States like Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh grow rice throughout the year due to water availability from both monsoons plus irrigation.

Indian agriculture is mainly divided into three cropping seasons. The terms kharif, rabi, and zaid are of Arabic origin and have been in use since the Mughal times.

Soil is the thin, upper layer of the Earth’s crust that supports plant life. It is formed over millions of years through the breakdown of rocks and the decay of organic matter. It is the most essential resource for farmers, providing nutrients, water, and support for crops.

How is Soil Formed? (Four Stages)

Ancient texts like the Amarakoṣha describe twelve types of agricultural land based on soil fertility. Today, we classify the soils of India into six major types.

Healthy soil is a complex ecosystem with organisms like bacteria, fungi, earthworms, and insects. It has minerals, organic matter (humus), water, and air. These organisms break down organic material and improve soil health.

Traditional Soil Conservation Methods

• Crop Rotation: Different crops grown in same field in different seasons — prevents soil from losing specific nutrients.
• Multiple Cropping: Multiple crops grown in the same field — reduces pest risk, ensures at least one crop, periodic harvests.
• Contour Ploughing: Ploughing along natural curves of a hill slope — avoids soil erosion from rainwater.
• Organic Fertilisers: Cow dung to replenish soil nutrients.

Contemporary Soil Conservation Methods

• Terracing: Creating flat steps in hilly areas — slows water runoff, reduces soil erosion.
• Afforestation: Planting trees — prevents soil erosion.
• Mulching: Still practised by farmers today (traditional method).
• Ploughing back crop residue: Improves organic content.
• Precision application of fertilisers: Efficient use, maintains soil health.

Water is a fundamental resource for agriculture. Availability of water significantly determines how farming is done in different parts of India.

The history of irrigation in India is very long — right from the time of the Indus civilisation, various water structures have been built across the country. A rich vocabulary of water structures developed throughout India.

Seeds are a key component of farming. Traditionally, seeds have been passed down in families from generation to generation, preserved at community level, and shared. In some areas, women carry seeds as part of gifts to their marital home. High-yielding seeds were carefully selected and preserved for the next planting season.

The Arthaśhāstra provides seed preparation instructions: cotton seeds smeared with cow dung; cereals, beans and pulses soaked in dew then sun-dried before planting; sugarcane smeared with honey, ghee, lard and covered with cow dung.

Traditional Agriculture — Core Philosophy

Traditional agriculture considers the plant and the soil (including the whole soil ecosystem) as a complete system. The soil is the primary source of nutrients. Bacteria and fungi in the soil convert nutrients into plant-available forms. The plants, in turn, supply energy to these organisms through their roots.

Intercropping

Growing two or more different crops simultaneously in the same field. Evidenced at Harappan sites (Kalibangan, ~2800 BCE) and still practised today.

Terrace Farming

Used on hilly slopes — farmers cut steps or terraces into the hillside to create flat land. Helps prevent soil erosion and conserve water. Example: Uttarakhand.

Contemporary agriculture is characterised by modern farming methods using technology, machinery, and new techniques. A significant turning point was the Green Revolution of the 1960s and 1970s.

There is a growing interest in combining the productivity of modern methods with the wisdom of traditional practices inspired by Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS).

Government’s Role

Key Challenges