The 11th and 12th centuries mark a decisive transition in Indian history. The previous chapter showed how Arab invasions had little lasting impact; these two centuries witnessed Turkic powers penetrating far deeper into north India despite resistance from native kingdoms. The period opens and closes with major invasions, yet also saw flourishing kingdoms, naval expeditions, monumental architecture, and remarkable intellectual achievements.

Background: Hindu Shāhis

In the 9th and 10th centuries, a powerful dynasty — the Hindu Shāhis — ruled across present-day Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, and Punjab. They controlled the Khyber Pass, one of the main mountain passes through the Hindu Kush range — a strategic gateway used by invaders and traders for at least 2,500 years, and also the route of Buddhist scholars and monks. With help from several Indian rulers, the Shāhis resisted multiple invasions.

Mahmūd of Ghazni

The Ghaznavids, a Turkic power with capital at Ghazna (today’s Ghazni, Afghanistan), overran the Shāhis. Their ruler Mahmūd of Ghazni first defeated Jayapāla and in 1008 defeated Ānandapāla (despite support from several north Indian rulers) in a battle in northern Punjab. This opened Mahmūd’s path to the Indus plains.

In all, Mahmūd conducted 17 campaigns in India; after each he returned to Ghazni with enormous booty. His army’s rapid marches and daring cavalry attacks with mounted archers proved decisive. He met strong resistance — including from the Chandellas of central India — and was nearly defeated on some occasions.

Destruction of Mathura and Somnath

At Mathura (1018), his court historian al-Utbi described its magnificent temple as beyond the power of “pens of all writers and pencils of all painters” to capture. Mahmūd destroyed it and plundered its treasure, then moved to Kannauj where he looted and destroyed many temples, catching the last Pratihāra ruler by surprise.

A campaign then took him to Somnath (1026) in present-day Saurashtra — then a bustling seaport. Despite fierce local resistance, Mahmūd destroyed the Somanātha Śhiva temple and looted its enormous treasures. Al-Bīrūnī recorded that a part of the Somnath idol was placed before the mosque in Ghazni “on which people rub their feet to clean them from dirt.”

The Somanātha temple was rebuilt and destroyed again several times. The current temple was built in 1950 and inaugurated in 1951 by President Rajendra Prasad — funded entirely by public donations.

Aftermath

Mahmūd died in 1030 in Ghazni, aged 58. His nephew Sālār Masūd attacked the Gangetic region, but when he reached Bahraich (Uttar Pradesh), the local ruler Suheldev (Suhaldev) successfully resisted and Sālār Masūd was killed (per oral history and a 17th-century Muslim chronicle).

Mahmūd’s campaigns involved not just plunder but also slaughter of tens of thousands of civilians and capture of prisoners including children — taken to be sold as slaves in Central Asian markets. His biographers depict him as powerful but cruel, targeting Hindus, Buddhists, Jains, and even rival Muslim sects.

The Sena Dynasty (Bengal)

While north India bore the brunt of Ghaznavid raids, eastern India was very different. After the decline of the Pālas, the Sena dynasty emerged as the dominant power over much of Bengal, with capital at Nādīya (now Nadia district, bordering Bangladesh). Relations with neighbouring Kāmarūpa (Assam) and Kalinga (Odisha) alternated between friendly and conflictual.

• Unlike Pālas (who patronised Buddhism), the Senas promoted Hindu thought and Sanskrit literature.
• They hosted the poet Jayadeva, author of the famous Gītagovindam — narrating the story of Kṛiṣhṇa and Rādhā, a cornerstone of Vaishnava bhakti literature.

The Eastern Gangas (Kalinga/Odisha)

Moving south along the coast, the Eastern Gangas had matrimonial alliances with the Cholas yet also clashed with them. By the end of the 12th century, they emerged as one of the most stable powers of eastern India, with their kingdom extending “from the Gangā to the Godāvarī.”

• Initiated construction of the Jagannātha temple at Puri.
• Built the grand Sun temple at Konark (mid-13th century).
• Sri Lankan king Vijayabāhu I (who drove Cholas out of Sri Lanka) married a princess from Kalinga.

The Western Chālukyas (capital Kalyāṇī) were a major Deccan power. As Eastern Chālukyas were absorbed into the Chola sphere through marriage alliances, their capital Vengi became the object of fierce wars between the Cholas and Western Chālukyas. Eventually the Western Chālukyas faded, while Kākatīyas and Hoysalas grew stronger to replace them.

The Kākatīyas

In the 12th century, the Kākatīyas cemented authority over much of present-day Telangana and Andhra Pradesh. Their capital was Orugallu (today’s Warangal), where they built a fort with impressive stone toraṇas (gateways). Some kings composed in Sanskrit; they also patronised Telugu literature. The Thousand Pillar Temple at Hanamkonda is a celebrated example of their architecture.

The Hoysalas

The Hoysalas originated in southern Karnataka. Their name derives from a legend: founder Sāla was told “Poy, Sāla” (meaning “strike, Sāla” in old Kannada) by a Jain ascetic threatened by a tiger. Sāla killed the tiger and saved the ascetic, who blessed him with kingship. The name ‘Hoysala’ is said to originate from this command — and this legend is depicted in several temples.

The Cholas were a powerful and influential dynasty in present-day Tamil Nadu, with capitals at Tanjāvūr (Thanjavur), Gangaikondacholapuram, and Kānchī (Kanchipuram).

Rājarāja Chola I (985–1014 CE)

• Ruled for about three decades; conquered parts of present-day Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
• His inscriptions record conquest of ‘islands of the sea’ — identified with the Maldives.
• Conquered the northern part of Sri Lanka, including the kingdom of Anurādhapura.
• Built the Bṛihadīśhvara Temple (Rājarājeśhvaram) at Thanjavur — a masterpiece of architecture and engineering.
• Although predominantly Shaivite, he facilitated construction of a Buddhist vihāra at Nāgapaṭṭinam — built by the Śhrīvijaya Empire ruler — demonstrating religious tolerance.

Rājendra Chola I (1014–1044 CE)

Rājendra I expanded the empire to Odisha and Bengal. He assumed the title ‘Gangaikondachola’ — “the Chola who seized (or brought) Gangā.” He also expanded his father’s Sri Lanka conquest; it remained a Chola territory for about half a century until the Sri Lankan king Vijayabāhu I drove the Cholas out after several battles.

The Naval Expedition Against Śhrīvijaya (1025 CE)

Rājendra I’s navy defeated the Śhrīvijaya forces and captured their capital. The conflict arose over control of the Strait of Malacca (between Malaysia and Sumatra) — key for trade with China — which the Śhrīvijaya king controlled. This was a punitive expedition, not an occupation, conducted with support of Indian merchant guilds. Rājendra also sent a diplomatic mission to China; trade relations with China thrived, confirmed by archaeological evidence.

Decline of the Cholas

The Cholas undertook large public works — roads, tanks, wells, canals, artificial lakes. But frequent wars with the Western Chālukyas, Pāṇḍyas, and Sri Lankan rulers drained their treasury. By the 13th century, the Chola empire was finally absorbed by the Pāṇḍyas.

The Paramāras were originally vassals of the Pratihāras and Rāṣhṭrakūṭas. In the second half of the 10th century, they emerged as an independent power in Malwa (present-day Madhya Pradesh), with Dhārā (Dhar) as their capital. Their most famous king was Bhoja, who ruled from 1010 for almost half a century. He extended his kingdom from the Konkan coast to parts of Rajasthan, and sent forces to assist the Hindu Shāhi rulers against Mahmūd of Ghazni. After Bhoja’s death in 1055, the Paramāras gradually declined.

Rise of Muhammad Ghūrī

After Mahmūd’s death, the Ghaznavid Empire disintegrated. The chiefs of Ghūr (present-day Ghor, Afghanistan), earlier vassals of the Ghaznavids, seized control and built their own power. Their leader Muhammad Ghūrī became sultan and brought parts of Punjab and Sindh under his rule.

In 1178, his attempt to expand into Gujarat failed — he was defeated by the Chaulukya king Mūlarāja II at the foot of Mount Abu. (Another version credits Queen Nāīkīdevī, Mūlarāja’s mother, with leading the victorious army on horseback with her son in her lap — recorded by Jain scholar Merutunga.)

Battles of Tarain and the Conquest of Delhi

The Chāhamānas (Chauhāns), a Rajput dynasty from Rajasthan, had by the 12th century conquered Delhi, Haryana, parts of Punjab and Uttar Pradesh — with capital at Ajayameru (Ajmer). Their kings often repelled invaders including Mahmūd of Ghazni.

Pṛithvīrāja III (Prithviraj Chauhan) defeated Muhammad Ghūrī in the First Battle of Tarain (1191) at Tarain (modern Taraori, Haryana). Within a year, Muhammad returned with a larger army. In the Second Battle of Tarain (1192), Muhammad defeated and executed Pṛithvīrāja.

Muhammad Ghūrī captured Delhi. Unlike Mahmūd (who plundered and withdrew), Ghūrī sought permanent territorial conquest. He returned to Ghazni but left trusted commanders — most notably Qutb-ud-din Aibak — to consolidate territory. Aibak later founded the Delhi Sultanate.

Bakhtiyār Khiljī — Destruction of Nālandā

Aibak’s army commander Bakhtiyār Khiljī conducted campaigns in eastern India from the end of the 12th century, conquering Bihar and Bengal. On his way to Bengal, he destroyed Nālandā and Vikramaśhilā — India’s greatest Buddhist universities — collecting huge booty and slaughtering large numbers of monks. Historians hold this destruction responsible for precipitating the decline of Buddhism in India.

Bakhtiyār Khiljī’s Defeat in Kāmarūpa (1205)

After conquering Bengal (~1203–04), Bakhtiyār attempted an expedition into Tibet. Passing through Kāmarūpa (Assam) in 1205, local ruler’s forces inflicted severe losses. The local population destroyed food and fodder — effectively starving the invading army. Bakhtiyār escaped with only a handful of men, returning to Bengal much weakened. He was assassinated in 1206 — the same year Muhammad Ghūrī was killed.

Military and Administration

The period’s constant warfare required powerful kingdoms to maintain large armies — soldiers, weapons, horses, elephants, and in north India, camels. This necessitated efficient administration to collect tributes from vassals and taxes from traders. Muhammad Ghūrī’s system was notably more centralised — he granted temporary land assignments (iqta) to officers in return for revenue collection and military service. This system was further developed in the Delhi Sultanate.

Trade

Despite political disturbances, India’s trade with China and Southeast Asia continued growing. Evidence: coins and pottery from overseas regions found at many locations on India’s west coast, which had many seaports and shipyards manufacturing seafaring ships. Powerful merchant guilds supported both internal and external trade.

Agriculture — The Economic Backbone

Agriculture remained the foundation of the economy. Ancient texts reference: rice and barley (Ganga plains and Bengal), saffron (Kashmir), spices (Kerala), ginger (Bengal), wheat (northwest India), cotton (western India and Deccan). Many rulers invested in irrigation works to mitigate unpredictable seasonal rains.

Literary Achievements

The Chālukya ruler Someśhvara III authored Mānasollāsa (12th century) — an encyclopaedia covering astronomy, architecture, music, medicine, cooking, and games. It serves as a comprehensive guide to royal life and governance, emphasising duties of kings towards subjects.

Temple Architecture

• Kandāriyā Mahādeva and Lakṣhmaṇa temples at Khajuraho (Chandellas) — zenith of Nagara temple style
• Hoysala temples at Belur, Halebidu, and Somanathapura — UNESCO World Heritage Sites
• Gangaikondacholapuram temple by Rājendra Chola I
• Bṛihadīśhvara Temple, Thanjavur by Rājarāja Chola I
• Bhojeshwar Temple by Bhoja Paramāra (unfinished but remarkable)
• Thousand Pillar Temple at Hanamkonda by Kākatīyas
• Jagannātha temple at Puri and Sun temple at Konark by Eastern Gangas

Philosopher-Saints

India’s Cultural Influence Abroad — Angkor Wat