UPSC Mains 2024 General Studies Paper 3

1. Examine the pattern and trend of public expenditure on social services in the post-reforms period in India. To what extent has this been in consonance with achieving the objective of inclusive growth? (Answer in 150 words)

Introduction:

• In the post-reforms period (post-1991 economic liberalization), India has witnessed changes in public expenditure on social services like education, healthcare, and welfare programs. This expenditure plays a key role in promoting inclusive growth by addressing inequality and improving the quality of life for marginalized communities.

Pattern and Trend of Public Expenditure on Social Services:

1. Steady Increase: Post-reforms, there has been a gradual increase in expenditure on social services, particularly through flagship schemes like Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), National Rural Health Mission (NRHM), and MGNREGA.
2. Focus on Education and Health: Spending on education and healthcare has increased, reflecting the government’s commitment to human capital development. Recent initiatives like Ayushman Bharat further signify this focus.
3. Rural Development and Welfare: The government has also directed funds towards rural development, welfare, and poverty alleviation programs, aiming to reduce inequality.

Impact on Inclusive Growth:

• While spending has increased, the quality of delivery remains a concern. Challenges like inefficiencies, regional disparities, and administrative delays have limited the impact of public expenditure on achieving inclusive growth.

Conclusion:

• Despite rising public expenditure on social services, more targeted efforts in efficient allocation, implementation, and regional equity are needed to fully achieve the goal of inclusive growth in India.

2. What are the causes of persistent high food inflation in India? Comment on the effectiveness of the monetary policy of the RBI to control this type of inflation. (Answer in 150 words)

Introduction:

• Persistent high food inflation in India has been a significant concern, impacting household budgets and economic stability. It is driven by various structural and cyclical factors, and controlling it remains a challenge despite monetary interventions by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI).

Causes of Persistent Food Inflation:

1. Supply-Side Constraints: Poor agricultural productivity, monsoon dependency, and inadequate storage and supply chain infrastructure lead to frequent shortages, pushing up prices.
2. Rising Input Costs: High prices of fertilizers, fuel, and labor affect food production costs, contributing to inflation.
3. Demand-Supply Imbalances: Increased demand due to population growth and changing consumption patterns (e.g., higher demand for proteins and fruits) outpaces supply.
4. Seasonal Variability: Crop failures due to droughts, floods, or extreme weather conditions affect supply, leading to price volatility.

Effectiveness of RBI’s Monetary Policy:

• The RBI’s monetary policy uses interest rates to control inflation by reducing demand. However, food inflation is largely supply-driven, making monetary tools less effective in addressing the root causes. Higher interest rates can reduce consumption demand but cannot resolve supply-side issues like crop failures or distribution inefficiencies.

Conclusion:

• While the RBI’s monetary policy helps moderate inflation to some extent, addressing food inflation requires structural reforms in agriculture, improving supply chains, and reducing input costs to tackle the underlying causes of inflation.

3. What were the factors responsible for the successful implementation of land reforms in some parts of the country? Elaborate. (Answer in 150 words)

Introduction:

• Land reforms in India aimed to reduce inequality in land ownership and improve the socio-economic conditions of farmers. However, their success has been uneven, with certain states achieving better outcomes.

Factors Responsible for Successful Implementation:

1. Political Will: States like West Bengal and Kerala exhibited strong political commitment toward land reforms. Pro-land reform parties, such as the Left Front, prioritized redistribution and tenant rights.
2. Effective Legislation and Enforcement: In states with successful land reforms, laws were clearly defined and rigorously enforced, including land ceiling laws and tenant rights. For example, West Bengal’s Operation Barga ensured tenant farmers got legal recognition.
3. Strong Local Institutions: Local bodies and Panchayati Raj institutions played a crucial role in the implementation of reforms by ensuring accountability and addressing local issues effectively.
4. Social Mobilization: In some regions, active participation from farmer unions, peasant movements, and civil society groups helped create awareness and build pressure for the effective execution of land reforms.
5. Judicial Support: Courts in certain states backed the implementation of reforms by upholding land redistribution laws and settling disputes in favor of landless farmers.

Conclusion:

• The successful implementation of land reforms in some parts of India can be attributed to a combination of political will, clear laws, local institution involvement, and social mobilization, leading to more equitable land distribution.

4. Explain the role of millets for ensuring health and nutritional security in India. (Answer in 150 words)

Introduction:

• Millets, traditionally consumed in India, have gained renewed attention for their potential in ensuring health and nutritional security. Rich in essential nutrients, they are drought-resistant and can be grown in diverse agro-climatic conditions, making them a valuable addition to India’s food basket.

Role of Millets in Health and Nutritional Security:

1. Nutrient-rich: Millets are packed with protein, fiber, iron, calcium, and antioxidants, which are vital for improving immune function, digestion, and overall health. They are also gluten-free, making them suitable for people with celiac disease or gluten intolerance.
2. Tackling Malnutrition: Millets are an effective solution to malnutrition in India, especially in rural areas. Varieties like ragi (finger millet) are rich in calcium, while bajra (pearl millet) and jowar (sorghum) are excellent sources of energy and iron, combating micronutrient deficiencies.
3. Low Glycemic Index: Millets have a low glycemic index, making them ideal for people with diabetes and preventing spikes in blood sugar levels.
4. Climate-resilient Crops: Millets are drought-tolerant and require fewer inputs like water and fertilizers, making them environmentally sustainable and ideal for ensuring food security in regions prone to climate variability.

Conclusion:

• The cultivation and consumption of millets can play a crucial role in promoting health, nutrition, and food security in India, particularly among vulnerable populations, while also supporting sustainable agriculture.

5. What is the present world scenario of intellectual property rights with respect to life materials? Although India is second in the world to file patents, still only a few have been commercialized. Explain the reasons behind this less commercialization. (Answer in 150 words)

Introduction:

• Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs) on life materials like genes, plants, and microorganisms have become a significant global issue. Patents in biotechnology and life sciences are increasingly being sought worldwide. India, despite being second globally in patent filings, struggles with commercializing these patents.

World Scenario of IPR on Life Materials:

• Globally, countries like the US and EU lead in commercializing patents related to life materials due to robust R&D ecosystems, technology transfer mechanisms, and effective IPR enforcement. Ethical debates on patenting life forms, biopiracy, and bioethics continue to shape global discourse.

Reasons for Less Commercialization in India:

1. Weak Industry-Academia Linkages: A significant gap exists between research institutions and industry, limiting the transfer of innovations to the market.
2. Lack of Funding: Commercialization requires significant financial investment for scaling up research, which is often unavailable to Indian researchers.
3. Complex Regulatory Environment: Stringent and time-consuming regulatory clearances for biotechnological products slow down the process of commercialization.
4. Limited Market Demand: Many patented life materials may lack immediate market demand or industry applications, reducing commercial interest.
5. Awareness and Expertise: There is a lack of awareness and expertise in patent valuation, licensing, and commercialization strategies among Indian innovators.

Conclusion:

• Despite India’s progress in filing patents, improving industry linkages, funding, and regulatory frameworks are crucial to enhancing the commercialization of life material patents.

6. What is the technology being employed for electronic toll collection on highways? What are its advantages and limitations? What are the proposed changes that will make this process seamless? Would this transition carry any potential hazards? (Answer in 150 words)

Introduction:

• Electronic Toll Collection (ETC) on highways in India primarily uses Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology, implemented through the FASTag system. Vehicles equipped with RFID tags automatically pay tolls as they pass through ETC lanes.

Advantages of ETC:

1. Reduced Traffic Congestion: ETC enables seamless movement at toll plazas, reducing wait times and fuel consumption.
2. Transparency: It promotes cashless transactions, reducing leakages and ensuring accurate toll collection.
3. Environmental Benefits: ETC reduces vehicular emissions by minimizing idling at toll booths.

Limitations of ETC:

1. Technical Glitches: Scanner failures or issues with RFID tags can cause delays.
2. Limited Coverage: Not all toll plazas are equipped with the necessary infrastructure for RFID-based toll collection.
3. User Adaptation: Limited public awareness and non-adoption by all vehicles slow down full-scale implementation.

Proposed Changes:

• The government plans to transition to Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)-based tolling, where tolls are calculated based on distance traveled.

Potential Hazards:

1. Privacy Concerns: GNSS-based tolling could lead to data privacy issues, as vehicle locations would be tracked.
2. Implementation Costs: Shifting to a GNSS system involves high infrastructure costs and potential technical challenges during the transition.

Conclusion:

• While ETC has streamlined toll collection, transitioning to GNSS-based tolling could further improve efficiency, though challenges like privacy and implementation costs need careful handling.

7. Industrial pollution of river water is a significant environmental issue in India. Discuss the various mitigation measures to deal with this problem and also the government’s initiatives in this regard. (Answer in 150 words)

Introduction:

• Industrial pollution of rivers in India, due to the discharge of untreated or partially treated effluents, is a significant environmental issue, impacting water quality, aquatic ecosystems, and human health.

Mitigation Measures:

1. Effluent Treatment Plants (ETPs): Mandatory installation of ETPs in industries to treat wastewater before discharge, ensuring pollutants are within permissible limits.
2. Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD): Promoting ZLD technologies where all industrial wastewater is recycled or reused, minimizing waste discharge into rivers.
3. Monitoring and Enforcement: Strengthening regulatory frameworks like the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, with stricter penalties for non-compliance and increased monitoring by Pollution Control Boards.
4. Green Chemistry and Cleaner Production: Encouraging industries to adopt eco-friendly technologies, reducing the generation of hazardous pollutants.

Government Initiatives:

1. Namami Gange Programme: Launched in 2014, this flagship initiative focuses on river rejuvenation, pollution control, and the establishment of common effluent treatment plants (CETPs) along the Ganga and its tributaries.
2. National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG): Works towards industrial pollution abatement by ensuring compliance with environmental regulations in industries near the Ganga basin.
3. Pollution Control Laws: The government enforces several environmental laws, such as the Environment Protection Act, 1986, to control river pollution from industrial sources.

Conclusion:

• A combination of technological advancements, strict enforcement, and government initiatives like Namami Gange is essential to effectively combat industrial river pollution in India.

8. What role do environmental NGOs and activists play in influencing Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) outcomes for major projects in India? Cite four examples with all important details. (Answer in 150 words)

Introduction:

• Environmental NGOs and activists play a vital role in influencing the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) outcomes by advocating for environmental protection, raising public awareness, and ensuring accountability in large projects.

Role of NGOs and Activists:

1. Awareness and Advocacy: NGOs educate local communities on the potential environmental impacts of projects, enabling informed participation in public hearings.
2. Legal Interventions: Activists often challenge inadequate EIAs through Public Interest Litigations (PILs) in courts to ensure compliance with environmental norms.
3. Monitoring and Reporting: NGOs actively monitor project sites and report violations, leading to stricter scrutiny and reconsideration of clearances.
4. Lobbying for Policy Reforms: NGOs push for more stringent EIA guidelines and policy changes.

Examples:

1. Narmada Bachao Andolan: Led by Medha Patkar, this movement successfully challenged the Narmada Dam project’s environmental clearances, highlighting displaced populations and environmental concerns.
2. POSCO Project, Odisha: Environmental groups like Greenpeace played a key role in delaying the POSCO steel plant by highlighting ecological impacts on forests and coastal regions.
3. Sterlite Copper Plant, Tamil Nadu: Activists and NGOs like CAG (Citizen consumer and civic Action Group) exposed environmental violations, leading to the plant’s closure due to public health risks.
4. Save Western Ghats Movement: NGOs influenced the halt of several large-scale projects by highlighting the ecological significance of the Western Ghats, a UNESCO World Heritage site.

Conclusion:

• NGOs and activists are crucial in ensuring transparent and accountable EIA processes, advocating for sustainable development.

9. Explain how narco-terrorism has emerged as a serious threat across the country. Suggest suitable measures to counter narco-terrorism. (Answer in 150 words)

Introduction:

• Narco-terrorism refers to the use of drug trafficking to fund terrorist activities, which has emerged as a significant threat to India. It not only fuels violence and terrorism but also undermines national security and destabilizes the social fabric.

Emergence of Narco-Terrorism in India:

1. Cross-Border Trafficking: India’s proximity to the Golden Crescent (Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Iran) and Golden Triangle (Myanmar, Laos, Thailand) makes it vulnerable to drug inflows, with proceeds often funding terrorism, especially in regions like Jammu & Kashmir and the Northeast.
2. Naxal Links: Naxal groups engage in drug cultivation and trafficking to finance their operations.
3. Radicalization: Drug money is used to radicalize youth and fund extremist networks, destabilizing the country.

Measures to Counter Narco-Terrorism:

1. Strengthening Border Security: Enhancing border surveillance and intelligence-sharing with neighboring countries to curb cross-border drug smuggling.
2. Coordinated Law Enforcement: Strengthening coordination between anti-narcotics agencies, intelligence services, and the National Investigation Agency (NIA) to dismantle narco-terror networks.
3. Public Awareness and Rehabilitation: Launching awareness campaigns on the dangers of drugs and providing rehabilitation programs to break the link between drugs and radicalization.
4. International Cooperation: Strengthening international cooperation through bilateral treaties and participation in global anti-narcotics initiatives like the UNODC.

Conclusion:

• Addressing narco-terrorism requires a multi-pronged strategy involving robust law enforcement, public engagement, and international cooperation to protect national security and societal well-being.

10. Describe the context and salient features of the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023. (Answer in 150 words)

Introduction:

The Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023, was enacted to establish a comprehensive framework for the protection of personal data in India. It aims to regulate the processing of digital personal data, ensuring privacy and accountability, while fostering innovation in the digital economy.

Context:

• With the rise of digital services, concerns about data privacy and misuse of personal information have grown. The Act aligns with India’s Supreme Court ruling in the Puttaswamy case (2017), which recognized privacy as a fundamental right.

Salient Features:

1. Consent-Based Data Processing: Personal data can only be processed with the explicit consent of the individual (data principal).
2. Data Fiduciaries: Organizations handling data (data fiduciaries) must ensure transparency, data security, and provide mechanisms for data correction or deletion.
3. Data Protection Board: A Data Protection Board will be established to oversee compliance and address grievances related to data breaches.
4. Cross-Border Data Transfer: Data can be transferred to trusted countries as notified by the government.
5. Penalties: Non-compliance can result in penalties up to ₹250 crore, ensuring strict accountability.
6. Rights of Individuals: Data principals have rights to access, correct, and erase their data.

Conclusion:

The Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023, aims to safeguard personal data, balance the interests of stakeholders, and foster a secure digital environment for individuals and businesses alike.

11. Discuss the merits and demerits of the four Labour Codes in the context of labour market reforms in India. What has been the progress so far in this regard? (Answer in 250 words)

Introduction:

The Four Labour Codes introduced by the Indian government—Wages, Industrial Relations, Social Security, and Occupational Safety, Health and Working Conditions—aim to simplify and consolidate the complex and fragmented labor laws in India, promoting ease of business while ensuring worker welfare.

Merits of the Labour Codes:

1. Simplification of Laws: The codes consolidate 29 labor laws into four, streamlining compliance and making it easier for businesses to understand and follow regulations.
2. Flexibility for Businesses: The codes provide greater flexibility in hiring, retrenchment, and fixed-term employment, facilitating labor market adaptability and promoting investment.
3. Social Security Net: The Social Security Code extends benefits like EPF and ESI to gig and platform workers, expanding the social safety net.
4. Improved Worker Rights: Provisions for minimum wages and timely payment have been standardized, offering protection to more categories of workers.

Demerits of the Labour Codes:

1. Weakening of Labor Unions: The Industrial Relations Code makes it harder to form unions and allows easier retrenchment for businesses, potentially weakening workers’ bargaining power.
2. Limited Applicability: Certain benefits apply only to establishments with a minimum number of workers, leaving small businesses and informal workers unprotected.
3. Centralization of Power: The codes give more power to the central government, which may reduce the autonomy of states in addressing local labor issues.

Progress So Far:

• The codes have been passed by Parliament but have yet to be fully implemented, as states are in the process of finalizing rules. There is also resistance from trade unions, which argue that the codes favor employers at the cost of workers’ rights.

Conclusion:

The Four Labour Codes offer potential benefits for ease of doing business and worker protections, but concerns about worker rights, social security, and enforcement need careful attention to ensure balanced reforms in India’s labor market.

12. What is the need for expanding regional air connectivity in India? In this context, discuss the government’s UDAN Scheme and its achievements. (Answer in 250 words)

Introduction:

Expanding regional air connectivity in India is crucial to boost economic growth, promote balanced regional development, and provide access to remote areas. Improved connectivity enhances tourism, trade, and business opportunities, while also fostering social integration by making air travel accessible to all sections of society.

Need for Expanding Regional Air Connectivity:

1. Inclusive Growth: Many tier-2 and tier-3 cities and remote areas remain underserved by air travel. Expanding air connectivity can bridge this gap and boost regional economies.
2. Economic Development: Air connectivity supports local businesses, tourism, and job creation, contributing to the overall development of underdeveloped regions.
3. Reducing Travel Time: Air connectivity provides a faster mode of transportation, reducing travel time for people and goods, which is essential for trade and tourism.

Government’s UDAN Scheme:

• Launched in 2017, the UDAN (Ude Desh ka Aam Nagrik) Scheme aims to make air travel affordable and widespread by connecting underserved and unserved airports.
• Subsidized Airfares: The scheme provides subsidized airfares on selected regional routes, making flying affordable for common citizens.
• Viability Gap Funding (VGF): To incentivize airlines, the government offers VGF to cover the shortfall between the cost of operation and ticket revenue on less-profitable routes.
• Infrastructure Development: The scheme also focuses on upgrading and developing new airports in smaller towns and cities.

Achievements:

1. Increased Connectivity: Over 450 routes have been awarded, and more than 70 airports have been operationalized under UDAN, connecting cities like Shimla, Agra, and Darbhanga.
2. Affordable Air Travel: The scheme has made air travel affordable for middle-class and lower-income groups, leading to a significant increase in regional air traffic.

Conclusion:

The UDAN Scheme has significantly improved regional air connectivity, fostering economic growth and making air travel accessible to a wider population. However, further expansion and infrastructure upgrades are needed to meet the growing demand and ensure long-term sustainability.

13 What are the major challenges faced by the Indian irrigation system in recent times? State the measures taken by the government for efficient irrigation management. (Answer in 250 words)

Introduction:

India’s irrigation system is crucial for agricultural productivity, but it faces several challenges that hinder its efficiency and sustainability. Addressing these issues is vital to ensure water availability for agriculture and to improve crop yields.

Major Challenges Faced by Indian Irrigation System:

1. Overexploitation of Groundwater: More than 60% of irrigation in India relies on groundwater, leading to over-extraction and depletion of water tables, especially in states like Punjab and Haryana.
2. Inefficient Water Use: Flood irrigation, the most common method, leads to significant water wastage due to seepage, evaporation, and unregulated usage.
3. Aging Infrastructure: Many irrigation canals and dams are decades old and suffer from poor maintenance, causing water losses.
4. Regional Disparities: Some regions, like northwest India, are over-irrigated, while others, such as eastern India, remain underdeveloped in terms of irrigation infrastructure.
5. Climate Change: Irregular rainfall patterns and droughts due to climate change strain existing irrigation systems, increasing dependency on groundwater.

Government Measures for Efficient Irrigation Management:

1. Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY): Aims to achieve “Har Khet Ko Pani” (water for every field) by expanding irrigation infrastructure and promoting efficient water use.
2. Per Drop More Crop: A component of PMKSY, this program promotes micro-irrigation technologies like drip and sprinkler systems to enhance water-use efficiency.
3. Command Area Development (CAD): Focuses on improving water delivery systems and minimizing water losses in canal irrigation.
4. Atal Bhujal Yojana: A groundwater management scheme aimed at improving groundwater recharge and sustainable usage in water-stressed regions.
5. National Water Mission: Part of India’s National Action Plan on Climate Change, it focuses on increasing water-use efficiency by 20% through technology and innovation.

Conclusion:

Efficient irrigation management is critical for India’s agricultural sustainability. Through schemes like PMKSY and Atal Bhujal Yojana, the government is addressing the challenges of over-reliance on groundwater and inefficient water use, but continued investment and innovation are essential for long-term success.

14 Elucidate the importance of buffer stocks for stabilizing agricultural prices in India. What are the challenges associated with the storage of buffer stock? Discuss. (Answer in 250 words)

Introduction:

Buffer stocks play a crucial role in stabilizing agricultural prices in India by ensuring that essential commodities like wheat and rice are available during periods of supply shortfalls or price volatility. Managed primarily by the Food Corporation of India (FCI), buffer stocks support food security and price stabilization efforts.

Importance of Buffer Stocks for Stabilizing Agricultural Prices:

1. Price Stabilization: Buffer stocks act as a cushion during agricultural shortages or crop failures, preventing sharp spikes in prices. By releasing stocks during periods of scarcity, the government can maintain affordable prices.
2. Food Security: Buffer stocks are crucial for implementing schemes like the Public Distribution System (PDS) and ensuring food availability to economically weaker sections.
3. Market Intervention: Buffer stocks allow the government to purchase commodities during surplus production, preventing a price crash and ensuring farmers receive a minimum support price (MSP).
4. Crisis Management: During natural disasters or emergencies like the COVID-19 pandemic, buffer stocks ensure the availability of food to vulnerable populations.

Challenges Associated with Buffer Stock Storage:

1. Storage Capacity: India’s storage infrastructure, particularly with the FCI, suffers from inadequate capacity, leading to spoilage and wastage of grains.
2. Quality Maintenance: Improper storage conditions and delays in disposal result in the deterioration of grain quality.
3. High Costs: The cost of maintaining large buffer stocks, including storage, transportation, and handling, puts a strain on government finances.
4. Overstocking: Periods of overproduction can lead to excess buffer stock, increasing the burden on storage facilities and leading to inefficiency in stock rotation.

Conclusion:

Buffer stocks are essential for stabilizing agricultural prices and ensuring food security in India. However, challenges related to storage infrastructure, quality maintenance, and costs need to be addressed through modern storage solutions and better inventory management to make the system more efficient and sustainable.

15 The world is facing an acute shortage of clean and safe freshwater. What are the alternative technologies which can solve this crisis? Briefly discuss any three such technologies citing their key merits and demerits. (Answer in 250 words)

Introduction:

The world is grappling with an acute shortage of clean and safe freshwater due to factors like population growth, industrialization, and climate change. To address this crisis, several alternative technologies have emerged that can help produce or conserve freshwater.

1. Desalination Technology:

• Merits:
  • Desalination plants convert seawater into drinkable water, offering an almost unlimited supply of freshwater for coastal regions.
  • It reduces the dependency on overexploited freshwater sources like rivers and groundwater.
• Demerits:
  • High energy consumption and operational costs make it expensive.
  • It generates brine waste, which can harm marine ecosystems if not properly managed.

2. Rainwater Harvesting:

• Merits:
  • Rainwater harvesting is a cost-effective and sustainable method for capturing and storing rainwater for later use, especially in water-scarce areas.
  • It reduces the burden on traditional water sources and helps recharge groundwater.
• Demerits:
  • The system’s effectiveness depends on local rainfall patterns, making it less reliable in arid regions.
  • Requires proper storage and maintenance to prevent contamination.

3. Wastewater Recycling and Reuse:

• Merits:
  • Recycling wastewater provides a sustainable way to convert wastewater into potable water or for agricultural and industrial purposes.
  • It reduces freshwater demand and limits water pollution.
• Demerits:
  • High initial investment for setting up advanced treatment plants.
  • Public perception and reluctance to use recycled water for drinking purposes remain challenges.

Conclusion:

Alternative technologies like desalination, rainwater harvesting, and wastewater recycling offer promising solutions to the global freshwater crisis, but their challenges, including costs and public acceptance, need to be addressed for widespread adoption.

16 What are asteroids? How real is the threat of them causing the extinction of life? What strategies have been developed to prevent such a catastrophe? (Answer in 250 words)

Introduction:

Asteroids are small, rocky objects that orbit the Sun, primarily found in the Asteroid Belt between Mars and Jupiter. While most remain in stable orbits, some can be nudged toward Earth’s path due to gravitational forces, posing potential threats to life.

Threat of Extinction:

1. Historical Impact: The most notable asteroid impact is believed to have caused the extinction of the dinosaurs around 66 million years ago. This shows that asteroid collisions with Earth can lead to massive destruction, affecting global climates and ecosystems.
2. Likelihood of Collision: Though the probability of a large asteroid striking Earth is low, Near-Earth Objects (NEOs) larger than 140 meters in diameter are closely monitored. A collision with a large asteroid could cause significant loss of life or even an extinction event, though such impacts are rare on human timescales.

Preventive Strategies:

1. NEO Detection Systems: Space agencies like NASA and ESA have developed early warning systems like the NEO Surveillance Mission and Pan-STARRS to track asteroids that might pose a threat. These systems aim to detect objects well in advance of any potential collision.
2. Deflection Missions: The DART (Double Asteroid Redirection Test) mission launched by NASA in 2021 is the first attempt to redirect an asteroid’s path using a kinetic impactor. This strategy aims to nudge an asteroid away from Earth’s orbit.
3. Nuclear Deterrence: In extreme scenarios, using nuclear explosives to break or deflect an asteroid has been proposed, though it is still largely theoretical and carries risks.

Conclusion:

While the threat of an asteroid causing the extinction of life on Earth is real but low, detection systems and deflection technologies are being developed to mitigate potential impacts, ensuring Earth’s safety from catastrophic events.

17. What is disaster resilience? How is it determined? Describe various elements of a resilience framework. Also mention the global targets of Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015–2030). (Answer in 250 words)

Introduction:

Disaster resilience refers to the ability of communities, systems, and societies to withstand, adapt to, and recover from disasters while maintaining their essential functions. It involves reducing the impact of hazards and ensuring that affected populations can bounce back quickly.

Determining Resilience:

Disaster resilience is determined by factors such as:

1. Preparedness: Measures taken before a disaster to reduce risks, like early warning systems and public awareness.
2. Response capacity: How quickly and effectively communities and governments can mobilize resources during a disaster.
3. Recovery mechanisms: The ability to restore infrastructure, services, and livelihoods post-disaster.

Elements of a Resilience Framework:

1. Risk Assessment: Identifying vulnerabilities, hazard zones, and the potential impacts of disasters.
2. Mitigation Measures: Implementing strategies to reduce risks, like building resilient infrastructure and enforcing land-use policies.
3. Preparedness: Promoting early warning systems, community education, and disaster drills.
4. Response Mechanisms: Ensuring effective coordination and mobilization of resources during disasters.
5. Recovery Plans: Developing post-disaster recovery strategies to rebuild infrastructure, support affected communities, and restore normalcy.

Global Targets of the Sendai Framework (2015–2030):

1. Reduce disaster mortality by substantial percentages by 2030.
2. Reduce the number of affected people globally by significant proportions.
3. Reduce economic losses relative to GDP due to disasters.
4. Reduce damage to critical infrastructure, including healthcare and educational facilities.
5. Increase the number of countries with national and local disaster risk reduction strategies.
6. Enhance international cooperation for disaster risk reduction.
7. Improve access to early warning systems and disaster risk information.

Conclusion:

Disaster resilience is key to reducing the long-term impacts of disasters. Frameworks like the Sendai Framework set clear targets for building resilience globally, focusing on preparedness, mitigation, and recovery strategies.

18. Flooding in urban areas is an emerging climate-induced disaster. Discuss the causes of this disaster. Mention the features of two such major floods in the last two decades in India. Describe the policies and frameworks in India that aim at tackling such floods. (Answer in 250 words)

Introduction:

Urban flooding is becoming a common climate-induced disaster in India due to changing weather patterns, rapid urbanization, and unplanned development. Cities face increasing vulnerabilities to floods, impacting lives, infrastructure, and the economy.

Causes of Urban Flooding:

1. Unplanned Urbanization: Encroachment on wetlands, rivers, and natural drainage systems reduces the city’s capacity to absorb and channel excess rainwater.
2. Inadequate Drainage Systems: Overburdened and outdated drainage systems fail to handle heavy rainfall and runoff, resulting in waterlogging.
3. Extreme Weather Events: Climate change is leading to more frequent and intense monsoon rains, overwhelming city infrastructure.
4. Impermeable Surfaces: Large-scale paving and construction create impermeable surfaces, preventing natural groundwater absorption.

Major Urban Floods in India:

1. Mumbai Floods (2005):
   • On July 26, 2005, Mumbai witnessed 944 mm rainfall in 24 hours, causing massive urban flooding. Blocked drainage systems and encroachments on Mithi River exacerbated the disaster, leading to over 1,000 deaths and severe infrastructure damage.
2. Chennai Floods (2015):
   • Unprecedented rainfall, poor urban planning, and encroachments on the Adyar and Cooum rivers caused severe flooding in Chennai. Over 400 lives were lost, and economic damages ran into billions.

Policies and Frameworks to Tackle Urban Flooding:

1. National Disaster Management Guidelines (2008): Issued by the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), these guidelines focus on flood risk mitigation through better planning, preparedness, and disaster resilience.
2. Smart Cities Mission: Encourages cities to adopt sustainable urban planning and implement rainwater harvesting, stormwater management, and better drainage systems.
3. Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT): Focuses on improving drainage systems and creating urban infrastructure that can handle heavy rainfall.

Conclusion:

Urban flooding in India is driven by climate change, poor planning, and infrastructure deficiencies. Tackling this requires holistic measures under disaster management policies, emphasizing sustainable urban development and robust infrastructure.

19. India has a long and troubled border with China and Pakistan fraught with contentious issues. Examine the conflicting issues and security challenges along the border. Also give out the development being undertaken in these areas under the Border Area Development Programme (BADP) and Border Infrastructure and Management (BIM) Scheme. (Answer in 250 words)

Introduction:

India shares contentious borders with both China and Pakistan, leading to ongoing security challenges. These disputes have historical roots and continue to affect regional stability and national security.

Conflicting Issues and Security Challenges:

1. India-China Border (Line of Actual Control – LAC):
   • The LAC remains undefined and is a major source of tension, particularly in areas like Aksai Chin, claimed by India but controlled by China.
   • Frequent border skirmishes, such as the Galwan Valley clash (2020), underscore the volatility.
   • China’s infrastructure buildup along the LAC poses security challenges, and India faces the task of enhancing its own border defense.
2. India-Pakistan Border (Line of Control – LoC):
   • Persistent cross-border terrorism and infiltration from Pakistan into Kashmir destabilize the region.
   • The Siachen Glacier and Sir Creek are other contentious areas, with military standoffs and territorial disputes.
   • Pakistan’s support of militant groups in Kashmir exacerbates the internal security situation.

Development under Border Area Development Programme (BADP) and Border Infrastructure and Management (BIM) Scheme:

1. BADP:
   • Focuses on infrastructure development in remote border areas, aiming to improve the living standards of people residing in these regions.
   • Key areas of development include education, healthcare, and roads, ensuring better access and connectivity for remote communities.
   • Emphasis is placed on social and economic development to prevent migration from these areas, thereby strengthening India’s border defense.
2. BIM Scheme:
   • Aims to enhance border security by improving border fencing, roads, and outposts along sensitive areas with Pakistan and China.
   • Strategic infrastructure like all-weather roads and advanced surveillance technology is being implemented to bolster border security.
   • The focus is on improving logistics for faster deployment of forces and ensuring surveillance along vulnerable stretches of the border.

Conclusion:

India’s borders with China and Pakistan remain fraught with territorial disputes and security challenges. While infrastructural and developmental initiatives under the BADP and BIM are improving living conditions and security in border areas, continued strategic development and diplomatic engagement are crucial for ensuring long-term peace and stability.

20.Social media and encrypted messaging services pose a serious security challenge. What measures have been adopted at various levels to address the security implications of social media? Also suggest any other remedies to address the problem. (Answer in 250 words)

Introduction:

Social media and encrypted messaging services, while useful for communication, have become platforms for spreading misinformation, radicalization, and coordination of illegal activities, posing significant security challenges for governments worldwide.

Measures Adopted to Address Security Implications:

1. Regulatory Frameworks:
   • The Indian government introduced the Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules, 2021, mandating social media platforms to appoint compliance officers and establish mechanisms for content removal and grievance redressal within 24 hours for harmful content.
   • The Personal Data Protection Bill aims to regulate the collection, processing, and storage of personal data, ensuring user privacy and security.
2. Encryption Regulations:
   • Social media platforms using end-to-end encryption are required to ensure traceability of origin for any unlawful content under the IT Rules. This enables law enforcement agencies to trace the source of messages related to terrorism, hate speech, or cybercrimes.
3. Surveillance and Monitoring:
   • Indian agencies have enhanced cyber surveillance capabilities through tools like Netra and CCTNS (Crime and Criminal Tracking Network System) to track and analyze suspicious activity on social media and encrypted platforms.
4. Awareness and Education:
   • Governments and NGOs run digital literacy campaigns to educate users on cybersecurity risks and responsible social media use, aiming to reduce the spread of fake news and misinformation.

Additional Remedies to Address the Problem:

1. International Cooperation: Global collaboration among governments and tech companies is essential to establish uniform standards for content regulation and cross-border data sharing.
2. Advanced AI Algorithms: Using AI-based algorithms to detect and remove harmful content, including deepfakes and misinformation, in real-time can be effective in addressing growing threats.
3. Stricter Penalties: Introducing stricter penalties for platform non-compliance and individual offenders involved in cybercrime and misuse of social media.

Conclusion:

While significant steps have been taken to regulate social media and encrypted messaging services, continued innovation, international cooperation, and public awareness are needed to address the ever-evolving security challenges posed by these platforms effectively.