Very little is known about Aśhoka's successors. It is generally accepted that the last Maurya emperor was assassinated around 185 BCE by his commander-in-chief Puṣhyamitra Śhunga. This led to a breakup of the empire — hardly half a century after Aśhoka. Many new kingdoms emerged across the subcontinent, which were often earlier tributary kingdoms under the overlordship of the Maurya empire. The northwest region became weak, exposing it to invasions from outside the subcontinent.

This period (roughly 2nd century BCE to 3rd century CE) is called the 'Age of Reorganisation' by some scholars as existing regions were being reorganised into new kingdoms constantly competing to become powerful. The map of India changed significantly, as did people's lives.

Along with political events, there was a burst in the development of art, architecture and literature, and enriching cultural exchanges. Internal conflicts were coupled with foreign invasions. Despite these struggles, this age witnessed remarkable cultural exchange and assimilation, ultimately with a dominance of Indian themes in art and architecture, and flourishing Sanskrit literature.

Puṣhyamitra Śhunga founded the Śhunga dynasty, which ruled over parts of north and central India. He performed the aśhvamedha yajña, a Vedic ritual, to establish himself as a most powerful ruler. Although his empire was smaller than the Maurya Empire, he kept it safe from potential invaders and maintained friendly relations with the Greeks (after some initial military campaigns against them). The empire lasted about a century after him, then declined.

The Śhunga period witnessed the revival of Vedic rituals and practices, but other schools of thought continued to flourish. Sanskrit emerged as one of the preferred languages for philosophical and literary works. The Yoga Sūtras were compiled by Patañjali during this period.

Fig. 6.5.1–6.5.4 Railings at the Bharhut Stūpa (Madhya Pradesh). (1) The railings and circumambulatory path. (2) Carving of Lakshmi on a railing. (3) A group of singers and dancers. (4) Elephants holding up the wheel of dharma.

Fig. 6.7 A panel from the Bharhut Stūpa — one of the finest examples of early Buddhist art under Śhunga patronage.

Fig. 6.6 Some Śhunga Contributions to Art: (1) Pillar with a Greek warrior. (2) Male figure. (3) Woman with a child. (4) Woman with a fan. (5) A vase. (6) Female figure with hair ornaments, terracotta. (7) Royal family. (8) Bronze bangles covered with a thin layer of gold. (9) Comb of ivory. (10) Beads of a necklace.

The Sātavāhanas ruled large parts of the Deccan from the 2nd century BCE onward, to the south of the Śhunga Empire. Sometimes referred to as 'Andhras', their empire largely comprised present-day Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Maharashtra. Their most famous capitals were Amrāvatī and Pratiṣhṭhāna (Paithan). Trade and commerce flourished in the Sātavāhana kingdom.

Fig. 6.9 The Naneghat Caves near Pune — located close to a major trade route, used for collection of tolls and taxes, and as resting places for traders. The inscriptions found here mention the aśhvamedha yajña and Indian numerals resembling modern ones.

In the Sātavāhana tradition, princes were often named after their mothers. Thus Gautamīputra Sātakarṇi was named after his mother, Gautamī Balaśhrī. She was a powerful queen who donated land to Buddhist monks and had an important inscription carved in Nāśhik, showing her influence in the kingdom.

Fig. 6.11 & 6.12 (Left) The Karla caves near Lonavala, Maharashtra — to which the Sātavāhanas contributed during their reign. These caves were made for Buddhist monks. Notice the magnificent pillars and the stone replica of a stūpa in the centre — all carved out of a rocky hillside! (Right) A yakṣha (minor deity associated with nature) from the Pitalkhora caves, Maharashtra, carved in the Sātavāhana period. Its inscription reads: kanhadāsena hiramakarena kāṭa — 'made by Kanahadasa, a goldsmith'.

In the 3rd century CE, the Sātavāhana Empire fragmented into smaller independent kingdoms due to weak central control and gradual economic decline.

After the decline of the Maurya Empire, Kalinga (modern-day Odisha) rose as a prominent power under the kings of the Chedi dynasty.

Fig. 6.13.1–6.13.3 (1) Udayagiri caves near Bhubaneswar — notable examples of rock-cut architecture, likely developed for Jain monks. (2) The Hāthīgumphā inscription written in Brahmi script — records King Khāravela's accomplishments year by year. (3) Carved panel showing a scene from the Rāmāyaṇa.

Between the 2nd/3rd century BCE and the 3rd century CE, three powerful kingdoms rose in India's southern region — the Cheras, the Cholas and the Pāṇḍyas. They often competed with each other while contributing to regional growth in trade and culture. Aśhoka's empire stopped at these kingdoms (mentioned in his edicts), suggesting they remained independent even at the height of Mauryan power.

Fig. 6.14 Kingdoms in the South — Chola (capital: Uraiyūr), Chera (capital: Vanji/Karur), Pāṇḍya (capital: Madurai). Borders are approximate and fluctuated in time. Note the flags with their respective emblems.

The Cholas were a powerful dynasty that ruled parts of south India from the 3rd century BCE to the 13th century CE. The Chola king Karikāla is said to have defeated a combined force of the Cheras and Pāṇḍyas and established his supremacy.

Fig. 6.17 A view of the Kallaṇai or Grand Anicut — built by Chola king Karikāla. A complex water diversion system on the Kāveri river, still in use today, helping millions in Tamil Nadu with irrigation.

Also known as the Keralaputra (sons of Kerala), the Cheras ruled over the western parts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala, with their capital at Vanji (present-day Karur in Tamil Nadu). They encouraged the growth of Tamil literature and patronised Sangam poets. The Cheras were known for their extensive trade connections with the Roman Empire and West Asia, exporting spices, timber, ivory and pearls.

The Pāṇḍyas ruled parts of Tamil Nadu with their capital at present-day Madurai — their rule going back several centuries BCE. Megasthenes (in Indika) mentions this kingdom as a prosperous one with strong administration and active trade with Greeks and Romans. Khāravela mentions getting hundreds of pearls brought from the Pāṇḍya kingdom. The Pāṇḍyas were also an important naval power of the subcontinent. They left many inscriptions showing concern for subjects' welfare and encouragement to all schools of thought.

Alexander left satraps behind while retreating. Over time, these regional rulers established their independent domains and came to be known as 'Indo-Greeks'. After the decline of the Mauryas, the northwestern regions (roughly present-day Pakistan and Afghanistan) were an easy target. While they arrived as conquerors, the Indo-Greeks were much influenced by the rich local culture, creating a blend of Greek and Indian elements in governance, art, language, and daily life.

Fig. 6.19 The Heliodorus pillar near Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh — named after an Indo-Greek ambassador who praised Vāsudeva as the 'god of gods' in his inscription. The inscription also states: "Three immortal precepts [...] when practised lead to heaven: self-restraint, charity, consciousness."

Indo-Greek coins were made of gold, silver, copper and nickel, often portraying a king on one side and Greek deities on the other. Some coins, however, depicted Indian deities like Vāsudeva-Kṛiṣhṇa and Lakṣhmī — showing their assimilation into Indian culture. The rule of the Indo-Greeks ended with the invasions of the Indo-Scythians or Śhakas.

The Kuṣhāṇas, originally from central Asia, entered India probably in the 2nd century CE. At its peak, their empire extended from central Asia to large parts of northern India. Their rule marked a period of extensive cultural intermixing and had a profound impact on the history of the Indian subcontinent. The Kuṣhāṇas held control over significant sections of the Silk Route, and trade grew during their reign, connecting India with other parts of Asia and the West.

Fig. 6.22 The famous 'headless' statue of King Kaṇiṣhka (1.85 m high) — probably the most powerful ruler of the Kuṣhāṇa dynasty. The Brahmi inscription on the statue reads: 'mahārāja rājadhirāja devaputra kaṇiṣhka' — 'The great king, king of kings, son of God, Kaṇiṣhka'. Note the clothing, weapon, and footwear showing Central Asian origin.

Fig. 6.23 Coins of Kaṇiṣhka. (Left pair) Kaṇiṣhka shown holding a spear ('King of Kings'); reverse shows Buddha with inscription BOΔΔO (Buddha) in Greek script. (Right pair) An emperor on one side, Śhiva with the bull Nandi on the other — reflecting his patronage of multiple faiths.

Kuṣhāṇa art and architecture, exemplified by the Gāndhāra and Mathurā schools of art, are celebrated for their fusion of Indian and Greek styles. This era saw the rise of representations of deities which looked more similar to humans and the development of religious art, laying the groundwork for later temple architecture in the subcontinent.

Fig. 6.24 Head of a bodhisattva (or future Buddha) from the Gāndhāra School of Art — note the fusion of Indian and Greek features. Crafted in grey-black schist stone with realistic anatomy and flowing robes.

Fig. 6.26 Kubera, God of 'wealth' from the Mathurā School of Art. Note the prominent moustache — a distinguishing feature of some Indian sculptures. The Mathurā style primarily used red sandstone and produced fuller figures with smooth modelling.

Fig. 6.27.1–6.27.6 Art from the Kuṣhāṇa period: (1) A scene of the death of Buddha — Gāndhāra style in grey-black schist. (2) Bodhisattva Maitreya — Gāndhāra style. (3) Śhiva linga being worshipped by Kuṣhāna devotees — Mathurā red sandstone. (4) A Nāga between two Nāgīs, with inscription referring to the eighth year of Kaṇiṣhka's reign — Mathurā. (5) Kartikeya, the god of war, and Agni, the god of fire — Mathurā. (6) Standing Buddha — Mathurā style.

The Kuṣhāṇas held control over significant sections of the Silk Route, and during their reign, trade grew, connecting India with other parts of Asia and the West.

Fig. 6.25 (West) Trade routes of the ancient world — the network in green shows the Silk Route connecting China with the Mediterranean world, passing through central Asia, Persia, etc. Key western nodes: Rome, Byzantium, Antioch, Alexandria, Damascus, Samarkand, Balkh, Qumis-Iran.

Fig. 6.25 (East) The Silk Route through India and China — key Indian centres: Takṣhaśhilā, Mathura, Pāṭaliputra, Tāmralipti. The route connected to Luoyang in China. India was a major hub for goods, culture, and Buddhism spreading eastward.

Despite political conflicts and power struggles, the period saw remarkable cultural exchange and assimilation. This shared heritage is evident in art and architecture, where styles interacted, but with a dominance of Indian themes (especially Hindu and Buddhist ones). It was also the age when Sanskrit literature flourished, with in particular the composition of major Indian texts such as the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa.

Recognising these connections encourages us to view this 'Tapestry of the Past' not as confined to any one kingdom or ruler, but as a dynamic process that works through interaction and assimilation over time.

• The period after the disintegration of the Maurya empire was characterised by the emergence of many big and small kingdoms across the Subcontinent
• Internal conflicts were coupled with foreign invasions — together leading to a period of reorganisation of political powers
• This period witnessed a dialogue of various cultures that absorbed each other's influence to create new styles of art, architecture, coinage, etc., with ultimately a dominance of Indian themes and flourishing Sanskrit literature
• The time was also marked by remarkable developments in trade activities — both internal (Sangam kingdoms, Sātavāhanas) and external (Silk Route, Roman trade)

Very little is known about Aśhoka's successors. It is generally accepted that the last Maurya emperor was assassinated around 185 BCE by his commander-in-chief Puṣhyamitra Śhunga. This led to a breakup of the empire — hardly half a century after Aśhoka. Many new kingdoms emerged across the subcontinent, which were often earlier tributary kingdoms under the overlordship of the Maurya empire. The northwest region became weak, exposing it to invasions from outside the subcontinent.

This period (roughly 2nd century BCE to 3rd century CE) is called the 'Age of Reorganisation' by some scholars as existing regions were being reorganised into new kingdoms constantly competing to become powerful. The map of India changed significantly, as did people's lives.

Along with political events, there was a burst in the development of art, architecture and literature, and enriching cultural exchanges. Internal conflicts were coupled with foreign invasions. Despite these struggles, this age witnessed remarkable cultural exchange and assimilation, ultimately with a dominance of Indian themes in art and architecture, and flourishing Sanskrit literature.

Puṣhyamitra Śhunga founded the Śhunga dynasty, which ruled over parts of north and central India. He performed the aśhvamedha yajña, a Vedic ritual, to establish himself as a most powerful ruler. Although his empire was smaller than the Maurya Empire, he kept it safe from potential invaders and maintained friendly relations with the Greeks (after some initial military campaigns against them). The empire lasted about a century after him, then declined.

The Śhunga period witnessed the revival of Vedic rituals and practices, but other schools of thought continued to flourish. Sanskrit emerged as one of the preferred languages for philosophical and literary works. The Yoga Sūtras were compiled by Patañjali during this period.

Fig. 6.5.1–6.5.4 Railings at the Bharhut Stūpa (Madhya Pradesh). (1) The railings and circumambulatory path. (2) Carving of Lakshmi on a railing. (3) A group of singers and dancers. (4) Elephants holding up the wheel of dharma.

Fig. 6.7 A panel from the Bharhut Stūpa — one of the finest examples of early Buddhist art under Śhunga patronage.

Fig. 6.6 Some Śhunga Contributions to Art: (1) Pillar with a Greek warrior. (2) Male figure. (3) Woman with a child. (4) Woman with a fan. (5) A vase. (6) Female figure with hair ornaments, terracotta. (7) Royal family. (8) Bronze bangles covered with a thin layer of gold. (9) Comb of ivory. (10) Beads of a necklace.

The Sātavāhanas ruled large parts of the Deccan from the 2nd century BCE onward, to the south of the Śhunga Empire. Sometimes referred to as 'Andhras', their empire largely comprised present-day Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Maharashtra. Their most famous capitals were Amrāvatī and Pratiṣhṭhāna (Paithan). Trade and commerce flourished in the Sātavāhana kingdom.

Fig. 6.9 The Naneghat Caves near Pune — located close to a major trade route, used for collection of tolls and taxes, and as resting places for traders. The inscriptions found here mention the aśhvamedha yajña and Indian numerals resembling modern ones.

In the Sātavāhana tradition, princes were often named after their mothers. Thus Gautamīputra Sātakarṇi was named after his mother, Gautamī Balaśhrī. She was a powerful queen who donated land to Buddhist monks and had an important inscription carved in Nāśhik, showing her influence in the kingdom.

Fig. 6.11 & 6.12 (Left) The Karla caves near Lonavala, Maharashtra — to which the Sātavāhanas contributed during their reign. These caves were made for Buddhist monks. Notice the magnificent pillars and the stone replica of a stūpa in the centre — all carved out of a rocky hillside! (Right) A yakṣha (minor deity associated with nature) from the Pitalkhora caves, Maharashtra, carved in the Sātavāhana period. Its inscription reads: kanhadāsena hiramakarena kāṭa — 'made by Kanahadasa, a goldsmith'.

In the 3rd century CE, the Sātavāhana Empire fragmented into smaller independent kingdoms due to weak central control and gradual economic decline.

After the decline of the Maurya Empire, Kalinga (modern-day Odisha) rose as a prominent power under the kings of the Chedi dynasty.

Fig. 6.13.1–6.13.3 (1) Udayagiri caves near Bhubaneswar — notable examples of rock-cut architecture, likely developed for Jain monks. (2) The Hāthīgumphā inscription written in Brahmi script — records King Khāravela's accomplishments year by year. (3) Carved panel showing a scene from the Rāmāyaṇa.

Between the 2nd/3rd century BCE and the 3rd century CE, three powerful kingdoms rose in India's southern region — the Cheras, the Cholas and the Pāṇḍyas. They often competed with each other while contributing to regional growth in trade and culture. Aśhoka's empire stopped at these kingdoms (mentioned in his edicts), suggesting they remained independent even at the height of Mauryan power.

Fig. 6.14 Kingdoms in the South — Chola (capital: Uraiyūr), Chera (capital: Vanji/Karur), Pāṇḍya (capital: Madurai). Borders are approximate and fluctuated in time. Note the flags with their respective emblems.

The Cholas were a powerful dynasty that ruled parts of south India from the 3rd century BCE to the 13th century CE. The Chola king Karikāla is said to have defeated a combined force of the Cheras and Pāṇḍyas and established his supremacy.

Fig. 6.17 A view of the Kallaṇai or Grand Anicut — built by Chola king Karikāla. A complex water diversion system on the Kāveri river, still in use today, helping millions in Tamil Nadu with irrigation.

Also known as the Keralaputra (sons of Kerala), the Cheras ruled over the western parts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala, with their capital at Vanji (present-day Karur in Tamil Nadu). They encouraged the growth of Tamil literature and patronised Sangam poets. The Cheras were known for their extensive trade connections with the Roman Empire and West Asia, exporting spices, timber, ivory and pearls.

The Pāṇḍyas ruled parts of Tamil Nadu with their capital at present-day Madurai — their rule going back several centuries BCE. Megasthenes (in Indika) mentions this kingdom as a prosperous one with strong administration and active trade with Greeks and Romans. Khāravela mentions getting hundreds of pearls brought from the Pāṇḍya kingdom. The Pāṇḍyas were also an important naval power of the subcontinent. They left many inscriptions showing concern for subjects' welfare and encouragement to all schools of thought.

Alexander left satraps behind while retreating. Over time, these regional rulers established their independent domains and came to be known as 'Indo-Greeks'. After the decline of the Mauryas, the northwestern regions (roughly present-day Pakistan and Afghanistan) were an easy target. While they arrived as conquerors, the Indo-Greeks were much influenced by the rich local culture, creating a blend of Greek and Indian elements in governance, art, language, and daily life.

Fig. 6.19 The Heliodorus pillar near Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh — named after an Indo-Greek ambassador who praised Vāsudeva as the 'god of gods' in his inscription. The inscription also states: "Three immortal precepts [...] when practised lead to heaven: self-restraint, charity, consciousness."

Indo-Greek coins were made of gold, silver, copper and nickel, often portraying a king on one side and Greek deities on the other. Some coins, however, depicted Indian deities like Vāsudeva-Kṛiṣhṇa and Lakṣhmī — showing their assimilation into Indian culture. The rule of the Indo-Greeks ended with the invasions of the Indo-Scythians or Śhakas.

The Kuṣhāṇas, originally from central Asia, entered India probably in the 2nd century CE. At its peak, their empire extended from central Asia to large parts of northern India. Their rule marked a period of extensive cultural intermixing and had a profound impact on the history of the Indian subcontinent. The Kuṣhāṇas held control over significant sections of the Silk Route, and trade grew during their reign, connecting India with other parts of Asia and the West.

Fig. 6.22 The famous 'headless' statue of King Kaṇiṣhka (1.85 m high) — probably the most powerful ruler of the Kuṣhāṇa dynasty. The Brahmi inscription on the statue reads: 'mahārāja rājadhirāja devaputra kaṇiṣhka' — 'The great king, king of kings, son of God, Kaṇiṣhka'. Note the clothing, weapon, and footwear showing Central Asian origin.

Fig. 6.23 Coins of Kaṇiṣhka. (Left pair) Kaṇiṣhka shown holding a spear ('King of Kings'); reverse shows Buddha with inscription BOΔΔO (Buddha) in Greek script. (Right pair) An emperor on one side, Śhiva with the bull Nandi on the other — reflecting his patronage of multiple faiths.

Kuṣhāṇa art and architecture, exemplified by the Gāndhāra and Mathurā schools of art, are celebrated for their fusion of Indian and Greek styles. This era saw the rise of representations of deities which looked more similar to humans and the development of religious art, laying the groundwork for later temple architecture in the subcontinent.

Fig. 6.24 Head of a bodhisattva (or future Buddha) from the Gāndhāra School of Art — note the fusion of Indian and Greek features. Crafted in grey-black schist stone with realistic anatomy and flowing robes.

Fig. 6.26 Kubera, God of 'wealth' from the Mathurā School of Art. Note the prominent moustache — a distinguishing feature of some Indian sculptures. The Mathurā style primarily used red sandstone and produced fuller figures with smooth modelling.

Fig. 6.27.1–6.27.6 Art from the Kuṣhāṇa period: (1) A scene of the death of Buddha — Gāndhāra style in grey-black schist. (2) Bodhisattva Maitreya — Gāndhāra style. (3) Śhiva linga being worshipped by Kuṣhāna devotees — Mathurā red sandstone. (4) A Nāga between two Nāgīs, with inscription referring to the eighth year of Kaṇiṣhka's reign — Mathurā. (5) Kartikeya, the god of war, and Agni, the god of fire — Mathurā. (6) Standing Buddha — Mathurā style.

The Kuṣhāṇas held control over significant sections of the Silk Route, and during their reign, trade grew, connecting India with other parts of Asia and the West.

Fig. 6.25 (West) Trade routes of the ancient world — the network in green shows the Silk Route connecting China with the Mediterranean world, passing through central Asia, Persia, etc. Key western nodes: Rome, Byzantium, Antioch, Alexandria, Damascus, Samarkand, Balkh, Qumis-Iran.

Fig. 6.25 (East) The Silk Route through India and China — key Indian centres: Takṣhaśhilā, Mathura, Pāṭaliputra, Tāmralipti. The route connected to Luoyang in China. India was a major hub for goods, culture, and Buddhism spreading eastward.

Despite political conflicts and power struggles, the period saw remarkable cultural exchange and assimilation. This shared heritage is evident in art and architecture, where styles interacted, but with a dominance of Indian themes (especially Hindu and Buddhist ones). It was also the age when Sanskrit literature flourished, with in particular the composition of major Indian texts such as the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa.

Recognising these connections encourages us to view this 'Tapestry of the Past' not as confined to any one kingdom or ruler, but as a dynamic process that works through interaction and assimilation over time.

• The period after the disintegration of the Maurya empire was characterised by the emergence of many big and small kingdoms across the Subcontinent
• Internal conflicts were coupled with foreign invasions — together leading to a period of reorganisation of political powers
• This period witnessed a dialogue of various cultures that absorbed each other's influence to create new styles of art, architecture, coinage, etc., with ultimately a dominance of Indian themes and flourishing Sanskrit literature
• The time was also marked by remarkable developments in trade activities — both internal (Sangam kingdoms, Sātavāhanas) and external (Silk Route, Roman trade)